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                <ol class="chapter"><li class="chapter-item expanded affix "><a href="../intro.html">Introduction</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../shells/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Shells</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../shells/zsh.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> zsh</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../shells/bash.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> bash</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../shells/fish.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> fish</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> CLI foo</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/awk.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.1.</strong> awk</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/sed.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.2.</strong> sed</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/column.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.3.</strong> column</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/sort.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.4.</strong> sort</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/tr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.5.</strong> tr</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/tac.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.6.</strong> tac</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../cli/paste.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.7.</strong> paste</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Tools</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/tmux.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> tmux</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/screen.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> screen</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/emacs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> emacs</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/gpg.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> gpg</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/radare2.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> radare2</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/qemu.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.6.</strong> qemu</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/pacman.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.7.</strong> pacman</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/dot.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.8.</strong> dot</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/ffmpeg.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.9.</strong> ffmpeg</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/gnuplot.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.10.</strong> gnuplot</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/restic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.11.</strong> restic</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/qrencode.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.12.</strong> qrencode</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Process management & inspection</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/lsof.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> lsof</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/pidstat.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> pidstat</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/pgrep.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> pgrep</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/ps.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.4.</strong> ps</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/pmap.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.5.</strong> pmap</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/pstack.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.6.</strong> pstack</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/taskset.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.7.</strong> taskset</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../process/nice.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.8.</strong> nice</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Trace and Profile</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/time.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> time</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/strace.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> strace</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/ltrace.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> ltrace</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/perf.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.4.</strong> perf</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/oprofile.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.5.</strong> OProfile</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/callgrind.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.6.</strong> callgrind</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/valgrind.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.7.</strong> valgrind</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../debug/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Debug</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../debug/gdb.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> gdb</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../debug/gdbserver.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> gdbserver</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Binary</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/od.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> od</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/xxd.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> xxd</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/readelf.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> readelf</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/objdump.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.4.</strong> objdump</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/nm.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.5.</strong> nm</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Development</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/c++filt.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> c++filt</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/c++.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> c++</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/glibc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.3.</strong> glibc</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/gcc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.4.</strong> gcc</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/git.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.5.</strong> git</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/cmake.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.6.</strong> cmake</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/make.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.7.</strong> make</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/ld.so.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.8.</strong> ld.so</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/symbolver.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.9.</strong> symbol versioning</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/python.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.10.</strong> python</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/gcov.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.11.</strong> gcov</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/pgo.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.12.</strong> pgo</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Linux</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/systemd.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> systemd</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/coredump.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> coredump</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/ptrace_scope.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> ptrace_scope</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/cryptsetup.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.4.</strong> cryptsetup</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/swap.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.5.</strong> swap</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/input.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.6.</strong> input</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/acl.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.7.</strong> acl</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/zfs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.8.</strong> zfs</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/cpufreq.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.9.</strong> cpufreq</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/cups.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.10.</strong> cups</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Network</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/ssh.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.1.</strong> ssh</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/ss.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.2.</strong> ss</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/tcpdump.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.3.</strong> tcpdump</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/tshark.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.4.</strong> tshark</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/firewall-cmd.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.5.</strong> firewall-cmd</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/nftables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.6.</strong> nftables</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Web</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/html.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.1.</strong> html</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/css.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.2.</strong> css</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/chartjs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.3.</strong> chartjs</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/plotly.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.4.</strong> plotly</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> Arch</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/x86_64.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.1.</strong> x86_64</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/armv8.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.2.</strong> armv8</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/arm64.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.3.</strong> arm64</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/armv7.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.4.</strong> armv7</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/riscv.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.5.</strong> riscv</a></li></ol></li></ol>
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                        <h1 id="profile-guided-optimization-pgo"><a class="header" href="#profile-guided-optimization-pgo">Profile guided optimization (pgo)</a></h1>
<p><code>pgo</code> is an optimization technique to optimize a program for its usual
workload.</p>
<p>It is applied in two phases:</p>
<ol>
<li>Collect profiling data (best with representative benchmarks).</li>
<li>Optimize program based on collected profiling data.</li>
</ol>
<p>The following simple program is used as demonstrator.</p>
<pre><code class="language-c">#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;

#define NOINLINE __attribute__((noinline))

NOINLINE void foo() { puts("foo()"); }
NOINLINE void bar() { puts("bar()"); }

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  if (argc == 2) {
    foo();
  } else {
    bar();
  }
}
</code></pre>
<h2 id="clang"><a class="header" href="#clang">clang</a></h2>
<p>On the actual machine with <code>clang 15.0.7</code>, the following code is generated for
the <code>main()</code> function.</p>
<pre><code class="language-x86asm"># clang -o test test.c -O3

0000000000001160 &lt;main&gt;:
    1160:  50                   push   rax
    ; Jump if argc != 2.
    1161:  83 ff 02             cmp    edi,0x2
    1164:  75 09                jne    116f &lt;main+0xf&gt;
    ; foor() is on the hot path (fall-through).
    1166:  e8 d5 ff ff ff       call   1140 &lt;_Z3foov&gt;
    116b:  31 c0                xor    eax,eax
    116d:  59                   pop    rcx
    116e:  c3                   ret
    ; bar() is on the cold path (branch).
    116f:  e8 dc ff ff ff       call   1150 &lt;_Z3barv&gt;
    1174:  31 c0                xor    eax,eax
    1176:  59                   pop    rcx
    1177:  c3                   ret
</code></pre>
<p>The following shows how to compile with profiling instrumentation and how to
optimize the final program with the collected profiling data (<a href="https://clang.llvm.org/docs/UsersManual.html#profile-guided-optimization">llvm
pgo</a>).</p>
<p>The arguments to <code>./test</code> are chosen such that <code>9/10</code> runs call <code>bar()</code>, which
is currently on the <code>cold path</code>.</p>
<pre><code class="language-bash"># Compile test program with profiling instrumentation.
clang -o test test.cc -O3 -fprofile-instr-generate

# Collect profiling data from multiple runs.
for i in {0..10}; do
    LLVM_PROFILE_FILE="prof.clang/%p.profraw" ./test $(seq 0 $i)
done

# Merge raw profiling data into single profile data.
llvm-profdata merge -o pgo.profdata prof.clang/*.profraw

# Optimize test program with profiling data.
clang -o test test.cc -O3 -fprofile-use=pgo.profdata
</code></pre>
<blockquote>
<p>NOTE: If <code>LLVM_PROFILE_FILE</code> is not given the profile data is written to
<code>default.profraw</code> which is re-written on each run. If the <code>LLVM_PROFILE_FILE</code>
contains a <code>%m</code> in the filename, a unique integer will be generated and
consecutive runs will update the same generated profraw file,
<code>LLVM_PROFILE_FILE</code> can specify a new file every time, however that requires
more storage in general.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>After optimizing the program with the profiling data, the <code>main()</code> function
looks as follows.</p>
<pre><code class="language-x86asm">0000000000001060 &lt;main&gt;:
    1060:  50                    push   rax
    ; Jump if argc == 2.
    1061:  83 ff 02              cmp    edi,0x2
    1064:  74 09                 je     106f &lt;main+0xf&gt;
    ; bar() is on the hot path (fall-through).
    1066:  e8 e5 ff ff ff        call   1050 &lt;_Z3barv&gt;
    106b:  31 c0                 xor    eax,eax
    106d:  59                    pop    rcx
    106e:  c3                    ret
    ; foo() is on the cold path (branch).
    106f:  e8 cc ff ff ff        call   1040 &lt;_Z3foov&gt;
    1074:  31 c0                 xor    eax,eax
    1076:  59                    pop    rcx
    1077:  c3                    ret
</code></pre>
<h2 id="gcc"><a class="header" href="#gcc">gcc</a></h2>
<p>With <code>gcc 13.2.1</code> on the current machine, the optimizer puts <code>bar()</code> on the
<code>hot path</code> by default.</p>
<pre><code class="language-x86asm">0000000000001040 &lt;main&gt;:
    1040:  48 83 ec 08          sub    rsp,0x8
    ; Jump if argc == 2.
    1044:  83 ff 02             cmp    edi,0x2
    1047:  74 0c                je     1055 &lt;main+0x15&gt;
    ; bar () is on the hot path (fall-through).
    1049:  e8 22 01 00 00       call   1170 &lt;_Z3barv&gt;
    104e:  31 c0                xor    eax,eax
    1050:  48 83 c4 08          add    rsp,0x8
    1054:  c3                   ret
    ; foo() is on the cold path (branch).
    1055:  e8 06 01 00 00       call   1160 &lt;_Z3foov&gt;
    105a:  eb f2                jmp    104e &lt;main+0xe&gt;
    105c:  0f 1f 40 00          nop    DWORD PTR [rax+0x0]

</code></pre>
<p>The following shows how to compile with profiling instrumentation and how to
optimize the final program with the collected profiling data.</p>
<p>The arguments to <code>./test</code> are chosen such that <code>2/3</code> runs call <code>foo()</code>, which
is currently on the <code>cold path</code>.</p>
<pre><code class="language-bash">gcc -o test test.cc -O3 -fprofile-generate
./test 1
./test 1
./test 2 2
gcc -o test test.cc -O3 -fprofile-use
</code></pre>
<blockquote>
<p>NOTE: Consecutive runs update the generated <code>test.gcda</code> profile data file
rather than re-write it.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>After optimizing the program with the profiling data, the <code>main()</code> function</p>
<pre><code class="language-x86asm">0000000000001040 &lt;main.cold&gt;:
    ; bar() is on the cold path (branch).
    1040:  e8 05 00 00 00       call   104a &lt;_Z3barv&gt;
    1045:  e9 25 00 00 00       jmp    106f &lt;main+0xf&gt;

0000000000001060 &lt;main&gt;:
    1060:  51                   push   rcx
    ; Jump if argc != 2.
    1061:  83 ff 02             cmp    edi,0x2
    1064:  0f 85 d6 ff ff ff    jne    1040 &lt;main.cold&gt;
    ; for() is on the hot path (fall-through).
    106a:  e8 11 01 00 00       call   1180 &lt;_Z3foov&gt;
    106f:  31 c0                xor    eax,eax
    1071:  5a                   pop    rdx
    1072:  c3                   ret
</code></pre>

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