gas - Notes

From 2cad8341019659a65fc6e94992165b3d7b7a37db Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: johannst Date: Sun, 23 Mar 2025 23:51:01 +0000 Subject: deploy: 916b73bee95494c205ba67e4a50e6a525afc3a3c --- arch/x86_64.html | 62 +++++- debug/index.html | 4 +- development/gas.html | 258 +++++++++++++++++++++++ development/gcc.html | 4 +- development/git.html | 4 +- development/index.html | 1 + print.html | 346 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++- searchindex.js | 2 +- searchindex.json | 2 +- toc.html | 2 +- toc.js | 2 +- trace_profile/index.html | 1 + trace_profile/tracy.html | 434 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ trace_profile/tracy/.gitignore | 3 + trace_profile/tracy/Makefile | 53 +++++ trace_profile/tracy/foo.c | 48 +++++ trace_profile/tracy/get-tracy.sh | 39 ++++ trace_profile/tracy/main.cpp | 91 ++++++++ trace_profile/vtune.html | 4 +- 19 files changed, 1330 insertions(+), 30 deletions(-) create mode 100644 development/gas.html create mode 100644 trace_profile/tracy.html create mode 100644 trace_profile/tracy/.gitignore create mode 100644 trace_profile/tracy/Makefile create mode 100644 trace_profile/tracy/foo.c create mode 100644 trace_profile/tracy/get-tracy.sh create mode 100644 trace_profile/tracy/main.cpp diff --git a/arch/x86_64.html b/arch/x86_64.html index 6f0e435..19ae728 100644 --- a/arch/x86_64.html +++ b/arch/x86_64.html @@ -216,6 +216,41 @@ wrmsr // Write MSR register, effectively does MSR[ECX] <- EDX:EAX

See guest64-msr.S as an example.

Some interesting MSRs

C000_0082: IA32_LSTAR target address for syscall instruction +in IA-32e (64 bit) mode.
C000_0100: IA32_FS_BASE storage for %fs segment base address.
C000_0101: IA32_GS_BASE storage for %gs segment base address.
C000_0102: IA32_KERNEL_GS_BASE additional register, swapgs +swaps GS_BASE and KERNEL_GS_BASE, without altering any register state. +Can be used to swap in a pointer to a kernel data structure on syscall entry, +as for example in entry_SYSCALL_64.

Current privilege level

The current privilege level can be found at any time in the last two bits of the +code segment selector cs. The following shows an example debugging an entry +and exit of a syscall in x86_64-linux.

Breakpoint 1, entry_SYSCALL_64 () at arch/x86/entry/entry_64.S:90
+90		swapgs
+(gdb) info r rax rcx cs
+rax            0x0                 0                ; syscall nr
+rcx            0x7feb16399e56      140647666916950  ; ret addr
+cs             0x10                16               ; cs & 0x3 -> 0 (ring0,kernel)
+
+(gdb) c
+Breakpoint 2, entry_SYSCALL_64 () at arch/x86/entry/entry_64.S:217
+217		sysretq
+(gdb) info r rcx cs
+rcx            0x7feb16399e56      140647666916950  ; ret addr
+cs             0x10                16               ; cs & 0x3 -> 0 (ring0,kernel)
+
+(gdb) b *$rcx
+(gdb) s
+Breakpoint 3, 0x00007feb16399e56 in ?? ()
+(gdb) info r cs
+cs             0x33                51  ; cs & 0x3 -> 3 (ring3,user)
+

Size directives

Explicitly specify size of the operation.

mov  byte ptr [rax], 0xff    // save 1 byte(s) at [rax]
@@ -282,6 +317,18 @@ mov al, 0xaa
 mov cx, 0x10
 rep stosb

AT&T syntax for intel syntax users

mov %rax, %rbx           // mov rbx, rax
+mov $12, %rax            // mov rax, 12
+
+mov (%rsp), %rax         // mov rax, [rsp]
+mov 8(%rsp), %rax        // mov rax, [rsp + 8]
+mov (%rsp,%rcx,4), %rax  // mov rax, [rsp + 8 * rcx]
+mov 0x100, %rax          // mov rax, [0x100]
+mov (0x100), %rax        // mov rax, [0x100]
+
+mov %gs:8, %rax          // mov rax, gs:8
+

Time stamp counter - `rdtsc`

static inline uint64_t rdtsc() {
   uint32_t eax, edx;
@@ -475,34 +522,35 @@ must must save these registers in case they are used.
 gnu assembler gas
 intel syntax
 
-# file: greet.s
+// file: greet.S
+#include <asm/unistd.h>
 
     .intel_syntax noprefix
 
     .section .text, "ax", @progbits
     .global _start
 _start:
-    mov rdi, 1                      # fd
+    mov rdi, 1                      # fd (stdout)
     lea rsi, [rip + greeting]       # buf
     mov rdx, [rip + greeting_len]   # count
-    mov rax, 1                      # write(2) syscall nr
+    mov rax, __NR_write             # write(2) syscall nr
     syscall
 
-    mov rdi, 0                      # exit code
+    mov rdi, __NR_exit              # exit code
     mov rax, 60                     # exit(2) syscall nr
     syscall
 
     .section .rdonly, "a", @progbits
 greeting:
-    .asciz "Hi ASM-World!\n"
+    .ascii "Hi ASM-World!\n"
 greeting_len:
     .int .-greeting
 
 
-Syscall numbers are defined in /usr/include/asm/unistd.h.
+Files with .S suffix are pre-processed, while files with .s suffix are not.
 
 To compile and run:
-> gcc -o greet greet.s -nostartfiles -nostdlib && ./greet
+> gcc -o greet greet.S -nostartfiles -nostdlib && ./greet
 Hi ASM-World!
 
 MBR boot sectors example
diff --git a/debug/index.html b/debug/index.html
index c6c729d..5fb3240 100644
--- a/debug/index.html
+++ b/debug/index.html
@@ -165,7 +165,7 @@
 
                     
                         
-                            
+                            
                                 
                             
 
@@ -179,7 +179,7 @@
             
 
             
-                    
+                    
                         
                     
 
diff --git a/development/gas.html b/development/gas.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c87981
--- /dev/null
+++ b/development/gas.html
@@ -0,0 +1,258 @@
+
+
+    
+        
+        
+        gas - Notes
+
+
+        
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+        
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+                        
+                            
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+                    
+
+                    Notes
+
+                    
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+                    
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+                    
+                        
+                    
+                    
+                        
+                        
+                        
+                    
+                
+
+                
+                
+
+                
+                    
+                        gas
+Frequently used directives
+
+
+.byte, .2byte, .4byte, .8byte to define a N byte value
+.byte 0xaa
+.2byte 0xaabb
+.2byte 0xaa, 0xbb
+.4byte 0xaabbccdd
+.8byte 0xaabbccdd11223344
+
+
+
+.ascii to define an ascii string
+.ascii "foo"   ; allocates 3 bytes
+
+
+
+.asciz to define an ascii string with '\0' terminator
+.asciz "foo"   ; allocates 4 bytes (str + \0)
+
+
+
+.macro to define assembler macros. Arguments are accessed with the
+\arg syntax.
+.macro defstr name str
+\name:
+    .ascii "\str"
+\name\()_len:
+    .8byte . - \name
+.endm
+
+; use as
+defstr foo, "foobar"
+
+
+Use \() to concatenate macro argument and literal.
+
+
+
+GNU Assembler
+
+
+GNU Assembler Directives
+
+
+GNU Assembler x86_64 dependent features
+
+
+
+                    
+
+                    
+                        
+                            
+                                
+                            
+
+                            
+                                
+                            
+
+                        
+                    
+                
+            
+
+            
+                    
+                        
+                    
+
+                    
+                        
+                    
+            
+
+        
+
+
+
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+        
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+        
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+        
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+        
+        
+        
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+        
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+    
+    
+
diff --git a/development/gcc.html b/development/gcc.html
index 5b0fcc0..05ac313 100644
--- a/development/gcc.html
+++ b/development/gcc.html
@@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ run1:
                                 
                             
 
-                            
+                            
                                 
                             
 
@@ -274,7 +274,7 @@ run1:
                         
                     
 
-                    
+                    
                         
                     
             
diff --git a/development/git.html b/development/git.html
index c25adc2..89a9d30 100644
--- a/development/git.html
+++ b/development/git.html
@@ -404,7 +404,7 @@ history:    A - B
 
                     
                         
-                            
+                            
                                 
                             
 
@@ -418,7 +418,7 @@ history:    A - B
             
 
             
-                    
+                    
                         
                     
 
diff --git a/development/index.html b/development/index.html
index b93cc47..98bd9ec 100644
--- a/development/index.html
+++ b/development/index.html
@@ -161,6 +161,7 @@
 c++
 glibc
 gcc
+gas
 git
 cmake
 make
diff --git a/print.html b/print.html
index 28df4d6..ef23c83 100644
--- a/print.html
+++ b/print.html
@@ -2829,6 +2829,7 @@ renice -n 5 -p PID
 callgrind
 valgrind
 vtune
+tracy
 
 
/usr/bin/time(1)
 # statistics of process run
@@ -3276,6 +3277,231 @@ main: main.c
 vtune: main
 	$(VTUNE)/bin64/vtune -collect hotspots -start-paused -- ./main
 
+
tracy(1)
+Tracy is a frame profiler, supporting manual code instrumentation
+and providing a sampling profiler.
+One can either record and visualize the profiling data live using
+tracy-profiler or record the profiling data to a file using tracy-capture.
+tracy-profiler [file] [-p port]
+
+tracy-capture -o file [-f] [-p port]
+    -f   overwrite <file> if it exists
+
+Example
+The example showcases different cases:
+
+Use tracy from a single binary. In that case the TracyClient.cpp can be
+directly linked / included in the instrumented binary.
+Use tracy from different binaries (eg main executable + shared library). In
+this case the TracyClient.cpp should be compiled into its own shared
+library, such that there is a single tracy client.
+Use tracy from different binaries on windows. In this case the
+TracyClient.cpp must be compiled again into a separate shared library,
+while defining TRACY_EXPORTS. The code being instrumented must be compiled
+with TRACY_IMPORTS defined.
+
+An instrumented c++ example:
+#include <chrono>
+#include <thread>
+
+#include <tracy/Tracy.hpp>
+
+#ifdef USE_FOO
+extern "C" void foo_comp_hook(int64_t);
+#endif
+
+void init() {
+  // Create a named zone (active for the current scope).
+  // Name will be used when rendering the zone in the thread timeline.
+  ZoneScopedN("init()");
+  // Set explicit color for the rendered zone.
+  ZoneColor(0xff0000);
+
+  std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::seconds(1));
+}
+
+void comp(const char* name) {
+  // Track call count.
+  static int64_t ccnt = 0;
+  ccnt += 1;
+
+  // Create an unnamed zone for the current scope.
+  ZoneScoped;
+  // Name the zone by formatting the name dynamically.
+  // This name is shown for the zone in the thread timeline, however
+  // in the zone statistics they are all accounted under one common
+  // zone "comp".
+  ZoneNameF("comp(%s)", name);
+  // Additional text to attach to the zone.
+  ZoneTextF("text(%s)", name);
+  // Additional value to attach to the zone measurement.
+  ZoneValue(ccnt);
+
+  // Statistics for dynamic names, text and values can be looked at in the zone
+  // statistics.There measurements can be grouped by different categories.
+
+  // Add a simple plot.
+  TracyPlot("comp-plot", ccnt % 4);
+
+  std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::milliseconds(100));
+
+#ifdef USE_FOO
+  foo_comp_hook(ccnt);
+#endif
+}
+
+void post_comp() {
+  // Create an unnamed zone for the current scope and capture callstack (max
+  // depth 10). Capturing callstack requires platform with TRACY_HAS_CALLSTACK
+  // support.
+  ZoneScopedS(10);
+  // Name the zone, w/o formatting.
+  const char name[] = "post_comp()";
+  ZoneName(name, sizeof(name));
+
+  // Add trace messages to the timeline.
+  TracyMessageL("start sleep in post_comp()");
+  std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::milliseconds(50));
+  TracyMessageL("end sleep in post_comp()");
+}
+
+void fini() {
+  // Create a named zone with an explicit color.
+  ZoneScopedNC("fini()", 0x00ff00);
+  std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::seconds(1));
+}
+
+int main() {
+  // Create a named zone.
+  ZoneScopedN("main()");
+
+  init();
+
+  int step = 0;
+  while (step++ < 10) {
+    // Create a frame message, this start a new frame with the name
+    // "step" and end the previous frame with the name "step".
+    FrameMarkNamed("step");
+    // Create a named scope.
+    ZoneScopedN("step()");
+    comp("a");
+    comp("b");
+    comp("c");
+    post_comp();
+  }
+
+  fini();
+}
+
+An instrumented c example:
+#include <stdint.h>
+#include <inttypes.h>
+#include <stdio.h>
+
+#include <tracy/TracyC.h>
+
+static void comp_helper(int64_t i) {
+  char buf[64];
+  int cnt = snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "helper(%" PRId64 ")", i);
+
+  // Create an active unnamed zone.
+  TracyCZone(ctx, 1);
+
+  // Name the zone.
+  TracyCZoneName(ctx, buf, cnt);
+  // Add custom text to the zone measurement.
+  TracyCZoneText(ctx, buf, cnt);
+  // Add custom value to the zone measurement.
+  TracyCZoneValue(ctx, i);
+
+  for (int ii = 0; ii < i * 100000; ++ii) {
+    /* fake work */
+  }
+
+  // End the zone measurement.
+  TracyCZoneEnd(ctx);
+}
+
+void foo_comp_hook(int64_t cnt) {
+  // Create an active named zone.
+  TracyCZoneN(ctx, "foo", 1);
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < cnt; ++i) {
+    // Plot value.
+    TracyCPlot("foo_comp_hook", cnt + i);
+
+    comp_helper(i);
+  }
+
+  // Configure plot "foo", probably best done once during initialization..
+  TracyCPlotConfig("foo", TracyPlotFormatNumber, 1 /* step */, 1 /* fill */,
+                   0xff0000);
+  // Plot value.
+  TracyCPlot("foo", cnt);
+
+  // End the zone measurement.
+  TracyCZoneEnd(ctx);
+}
+
+Raw build commands to demonstrate compiling tracy w/o cmake, in case we need
+to integrate it into a different build system.
+B := BUILD
+
+main: $(B)/main-static $(B)/main-dynamic $(B)/main-dynamic-win
+tracy: $(B)/tracy
+.PHONY: main tracy
+
+# -- TRACY STATIC ---------------------------------------------------------------
+
+$(B)/main-static: main.cpp | $(B)
+	clang++ -DTRACY_ENABLE -I$(B)/tracy/public -o $@ $^ $(B)/tracy/public/TracyClient.cpp
+
+# -- TRACY DYNAMIC --------------------------------------------------------------
+
+$(B)/main-dynamic: main.cpp $(B)/foo.so $(B)/TracyClient.so | $(B)
+	clang++ -DTRACY_ENABLE -I$(B)/tracy/public -DUSE_FOO -o $@ $^
+
+$(B)/foo.so: foo.c $(B)/TracyClient.so
+	clang -DTRACY_ENABLE -I$(B)/tracy/public -fPIC -shared -o $@ $^
+
+$(B)/TracyClient.so: $(B)/tracy/public/TracyClient.cpp
+	clang++ -DTRACY_ENABLE -I$(B)/tracy/public -fPIC -shared -o $@ $^
+
+# -- TRACY DYNAMIC WINDOWS ------------------------------------------------------
+
+$(B)/main-dynamic-win: main.cpp $(B)/foo.dll $(B)/TracyClient.dll
+	@# eg run with wine
+	zig c++ -target x86_64-windows -DTRACY_ENABLE -DTRACY_IMPORTS -DUSE_FOO -o $@ $^ -I $(B)/tracy/public
+
+$(B)/foo.dll: foo.c $(B)/TracyClient.dll
+	zig c++ -target x86_64-windows -DTRACY_ENABLE -DTRACY_IMPORTS -fPIC -shared -o $@ $^ -I $(B)/tracy/public
+
+$(B)/TracyClient.dll: $(B)/tracy/public/TracyClient.cpp
+	@# win libs from 'pragma comment(lib, ..)'
+	zig c++ -target x86_64-windows -DTRACY_ENABLE -DTRACY_EXPORTS -fPIC -shared -o $@ $^ -lws2_32 -ldbghelp -ladvapi32 -luser32
+
+# -- TRACY ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Get latest tracy and build profiler.
+$(B)/tracy: $(B)
+	cd $(B); bash $(CURDIR)/get-tracy.sh
+.PHONY: $(B)/tracy
+
+$B:
+	mkdir -p $(B)
+.PHONY: $(B)
+
+# -- CLEAN ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+clean:
+	$(RM) $(B)/*.so $(B)/*.dll $(B)/*.pdb $(B)/*.lib $(B)/main*
+
+distclean:
+	rm -rf $(B)
+
+
+Find get-tracy.sh here.
+
 
Debug
 
 gdb
@@ -3774,7 +4000,7 @@ $MOOSE=moose
       host:port
       tty
 
-Example
+Example
 # Start gdbserver.
 gdbserver localhost:1234 /bin/ls
 
@@ -3941,6 +4167,7 @@ objdump -C --disassemble=foo::bar <bin>
 c++
 glibc
 gcc
+gas
 git
 cmake
 make
@@ -5015,6 +5242,55 @@ run1:
 C ABI (x86_64) - SystemV ABI
 C++ ABI - C++ Itanium ABI
 
+
gas
+Frequently used directives
+
+
+.byte, .2byte, .4byte, .8byte to define a N byte value
+.byte 0xaa
+.2byte 0xaabb
+.2byte 0xaa, 0xbb
+.4byte 0xaabbccdd
+.8byte 0xaabbccdd11223344
+
+
+
+.ascii to define an ascii string
+.ascii "foo"   ; allocates 3 bytes
+
+
+
+.asciz to define an ascii string with '\0' terminator
+.asciz "foo"   ; allocates 4 bytes (str + \0)
+
+
+
+.macro to define assembler macros. Arguments are accessed with the
+\arg syntax.
+.macro defstr name str
+\name:
+    .ascii "\str"
+\name\()_len:
+    .8byte . - \name
+.endm
+
+; use as
+defstr foo, "foobar"
+
+
+Use \() to concatenate macro argument and literal.
+
+
+
+GNU Assembler
+
+
+GNU Assembler Directives
+
+
+GNU Assembler x86_64 dependent features
+
+
 
git(1)
 Working areas
 +-------------------+ --- stash -----> +-------+
@@ -6091,7 +6367,7 @@ link time -lgcov.
 generated for a single file for example such as
 gcov <SRC FILE | OBJ FILE>
 
-Example
+Example
 #include <cstdio>
 
 void tell_me(int desc) {
@@ -6997,7 +7273,7 @@ cpupower -c all frequency-info -g
 # Change frequency governor to POWERSAVE (eg).
 cpupower -c all frequency-set -g powersave
 
-Example
+Example
 Watch cpu frequency.
 watch -n1 "cpupower -c all frequency-info -f -m | xargs -n2 -d'\n'"
 
@@ -7112,7 +7388,7 @@ locally and -R means that requests are issued remotely.
 drop into shell)
 -f run ssh command in the background
 
-Example
+Example
 # Forward requests on localhost:8080 to moose:1234 and keep ssh in forground
 # but dont drop into a shell.
 ssh -N -L 8080:1234 moose
@@ -8307,6 +8583,41 @@ wrmsr     // Write MSR register, effectively does MSR[ECX] <- EDX:EAX
 
 See guest64-msr.S as an example.
 
+Some interesting MSRs
+
+C000_0082: IA32_LSTAR target address for syscall instruction
+in IA-32e (64 bit) mode.
+C000_0100: IA32_FS_BASE storage for %fs segment base address.
+C000_0101: IA32_GS_BASE storage for %gs segment base address.
+C000_0102: IA32_KERNEL_GS_BASE additional register, swapgs
+swaps GS_BASE and KERNEL_GS_BASE, without altering any register state.
+Can be used to swap in a pointer to a kernel data structure on syscall entry,
+as for example in entry_SYSCALL_64.
+
+Current privilege level
+The current privilege level can be found at any time in the last two bits of the
+code segment selector cs. The following shows an example debugging an entry
+and exit of a syscall in x86_64-linux.
+Breakpoint 1, entry_SYSCALL_64 () at arch/x86/entry/entry_64.S:90
+90		swapgs
+(gdb) info r rax rcx cs
+rax            0x0                 0                ; syscall nr
+rcx            0x7feb16399e56      140647666916950  ; ret addr
+cs             0x10                16               ; cs & 0x3 -> 0 (ring0,kernel)
+
+(gdb) c
+Breakpoint 2, entry_SYSCALL_64 () at arch/x86/entry/entry_64.S:217
+217		sysretq
+(gdb) info r rcx cs
+rcx            0x7feb16399e56      140647666916950  ; ret addr
+cs             0x10                16               ; cs & 0x3 -> 0 (ring0,kernel)
+
+(gdb) b *$rcx
+(gdb) s
+Breakpoint 3, 0x00007feb16399e56 in ?? ()
+(gdb) info r cs
+cs             0x33                51  ; cs & 0x3 -> 3 (ring3,user)
+
 Size directives
 Explicitly specify size of the operation.
 mov  byte ptr [rax], 0xff    // save 1 byte(s) at [rax]
@@ -8373,6 +8684,18 @@ mov al, 0xaa
 mov cx, 0x10
 rep stosb
 
+AT&T syntax for intel syntax users
+mov %rax, %rbx           // mov rbx, rax
+mov $12, %rax            // mov rax, 12
+
+mov (%rsp), %rax         // mov rax, [rsp]
+mov 8(%rsp), %rax        // mov rax, [rsp + 8]
+mov (%rsp,%rcx,4), %rax  // mov rax, [rsp + 8 * rcx]
+mov 0x100, %rax          // mov rax, [0x100]
+mov (0x100), %rax        // mov rax, [0x100]
+
+mov %gs:8, %rax          // mov rax, gs:8
+
 Time stamp counter - rdtsc
 static inline uint64_t rdtsc() {
   uint32_t eax, edx;
@@ -8566,34 +8889,35 @@ must must save these registers in case they are used.
 gnu assembler gas
 intel syntax
 
-# file: greet.s
+// file: greet.S
+#include <asm/unistd.h>
 
     .intel_syntax noprefix
 
     .section .text, "ax", @progbits
     .global _start
 _start:
-    mov rdi, 1                      # fd
+    mov rdi, 1                      # fd (stdout)
     lea rsi, [rip + greeting]       # buf
     mov rdx, [rip + greeting_len]   # count
-    mov rax, 1                      # write(2) syscall nr
+    mov rax, __NR_write             # write(2) syscall nr
     syscall
 
-    mov rdi, 0                      # exit code
+    mov rdi, __NR_exit              # exit code
     mov rax, 60                     # exit(2) syscall nr
     syscall
 
     .section .rdonly, "a", @progbits
 greeting:
-    .asciz "Hi ASM-World!\n"
+    .ascii "Hi ASM-World!\n"
 greeting_len:
     .int .-greeting
 
 
-Syscall numbers are defined in /usr/include/asm/unistd.h.
+Files with .S suffix are pre-processed, while files with .s suffix are not.
 
 To compile and run:
-> gcc -o greet greet.s -nostartfiles -nostdlib && ./greet
+> gcc -o greet greet.S -nostartfiles -nostdlib && ./greet
 Hi ASM-World!
 
 MBR boot sectors example
diff --git a/searchindex.js b/searchindex.js
index cb1dd13..7549f55 100644
--- a/searchindex.js
+++ b/searchindex.js
@@ -1 +1 @@
-Object.assign(window.search, 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 \"ls\" C-m send cmds/keys to pane\ntmux run -t 
  run shell command  in background and report output on pane -t 
 For example cycle through all panes in all windows in all sessions: # bash\nfor s in $(tmux list-sessions -F '#S'); do for w in $(tmux list-windows -F '#I' -t $s); do for p in $(tmux list-panes -F '#P' -t $s:$w); do echo $s:$w.$p done done\ndone","breadcrumbs":"Tools » tmux » Scripting","id":"105","title":"Scripting"},"106":{"body":"prefix d detach from current session\nprefix c create new window\nprefix w open window list\nprefix $ rename session\nprefix , rename window\nprefix . move current window Following bindings are specific to my tmux.conf : C-s prefix # Panes\nprefix s horizontal split\nprefix v vertical split\nprefix f toggle maximize/minimize current pane # Movement\nprefix Tab toggle between window prefix h move to pane left\nprefix j move to pane down\nprefix k move to pane up\nprefix l move to pane right # Resize\nprefix C-h resize pane left\nprefix C-j resize pane down\nprefix C-k resize pane up\nprefix C-l resize pane right # Copy/Paste\nprefix C-v enter copy mode\nprefix C-p paste yanked text\nprefix C-b open copy-buffer list # In Copy Mode\nv enable visual mode\ny yank selected text","breadcrumbs":"Tools » tmux » Bindings","id":"106","title":"Bindings"},"107":{"body":"To enter command mode prefix :. Some useful commands are: setw synchronize-panes on/off enables/disables synchronized input to all panes\nlist-keys -t vi-copy list keymaps for vi-copy mode","breadcrumbs":"Tools » tmux » Command mode","id":"107","title":"Command mode"},"108":{"body":"# Create new session.\nscreen # List active session.\nscreen -list # Attach to specific session.\nscreen -r SESSION","breadcrumbs":"Tools » screen » screen(1)","id":"108","title":"screen(1)"},"109":{"body":"# Enable logfile, default name screenlog.0.\nscreen -L\n# Enable log and set logfile name.\nscreen -L -Logfile out.txt","breadcrumbs":"Tools » screen » Options","id":"109","title":"Options"},"11":{"body":"Zsh supports regular expression matching with the binary operator =~. The match results can be accessed via the $MATCH variable and $match indexed array: $MATCH contains the full match $match[1] contains match of the first capture group INPUT='title foo : 1234'\nREGEX='^title (.+) : ([0-9]+)$'\nif [[ $INPUT =~ $REGEX ]]; then echo \"$MATCH\" # title foo : 1234 echo \"$match[1]\" # foo echo \"$match[2]\" # 1234\nfi","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Regular Expressions","id":"11","title":"Regular Expressions"},"110":{"body":"Ctrl-A d # Detach from session.\nCtrl-A + \\ # Terminate session.\nCtrl-A + : # Open cmand prompt. kill # Kill session.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » screen » Keymaps","id":"110","title":"Keymaps"},"111":{"body":"USB serial console. # 1500000 -> baudrate\n# cs8 -> 8 data bits\n# -cstopb -> 1 stop bit\n# -parenb -> no parity bit\n# see stty(1) for all settings.\nscreen /dev/ttyUSB0 1500000,cs8,-cstopb,-parenb # Print current tty settings.\nsudo stty -F /dev/ttyUSB0 -a","breadcrumbs":"Tools » screen » Examples","id":"111","title":"Examples"},"112":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » emacs(1)","id":"112","title":"emacs(1)"},"113":{"body":"C-h ? list available help modes C-h e show message output (`*Messages*` buffer) C-h f describe function C-h v describe variable C-h w describe which key invoke function (where-is) C-h c  print command bound to  C-h k  describe command bound to  C-h b list buffer local key-bindings C-h F show emacs manual for command/function  C-h list possible key-bindings with  eg C-x C-h -> list key-bindings beginning with C-x","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » help","id":"113","title":"help"},"114":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------------------ package-refresh-contents refresh package list package-list-packages list available/installed packages `U x` to mark packages for Upgrade & eXecute","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » package manager","id":"114","title":"package manager"},"115":{"body":"key fn description\n---------------------------------------------- C-x 0 delete-window kill focused window C-x 1 delete-other-windows kill all other windows C-x 2 split-window-below split horizontal C-x 3 split-window-right split vertical C-x o other-window other window (cycle) C-x r w window-configuration-to-register save window configuration in a register (use C-x r j to jump to the windows config again)","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » window","id":"115","title":"window"},"116":{"body":"key description\n---------------------------- M-e enter edit minibuffer edit mode M-up focus previous completion M-down focus next completion M-ret select focused completion","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » minibuffer","id":"116","title":"minibuffer"},"117":{"body":"key fn description\n--------------------------------------------- C-x C-q read-only-mode toggle read-only mode for buffer C-x k kill-buffer kill buffer C-x s save-some-buffers save buffer C-x w write-file write buffer (save as) C-x b switch-to-buffer switch buffer C-x C-b list-buffers buffer list C-x x r rename-buffer renames a buffer (allows multiple shell, compile, grep, .. buffers)","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » buffer","id":"117","title":"buffer"},"118":{"body":"Builtin advanced buffer selection mode key fn description\n-------------------------------------- ibuffer enter buffer selection h ibuffer help d mark for deletion x kill buffers marked for deletion o open buffer in other window C-o open buffer in other window keep focus in ibuffer s a sort by buffer name s f sort by file name s v sort by last viewed s v sort by major mode , cycle sorting mode = compare buffer against file on disk (if file is dirty `*`) /m filter by major mode /n filter by buffer name /f filter by file name /i filter by modified buffers /E filter by process buffers // remove all filter /g create filter group /\\ remove all filter groups","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » ibuffer","id":"118","title":"ibuffer"},"119":{"body":"key fn description\n---------------------------------------- M-g g goto-line go to line M-g M-n next-error go to next error (grep, xref, compilation, ...) M-g M-p previous-error go to previous error M-g i imenu go to place in buffer (symbol, ...) M-< go to begin of buffer M-> go to end of buffer","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » goto navigation","id":"119","title":"goto navigation"},"12":{"body":"trap \"\" /EXIT # Show current trap handler.\ntrap -p\n# List signal names.\ntrap -l Example: Run handler only on error exit trap 'test $? -ne 0 && echo \"run exit trap\"' EXIT # -> no print\nexit 0\n# -> print\nexit 1 Example: Mutex in shell script For example if a script is triggered in unsynchronized, we may want to ensure that a single script instance runs. # open file=LOCK with fd=100\nexec 100>LOCK\n# take exclusive lock, wait maximal for 3600s\nflock -w 3600 -x 100 || { echo \"flock timeout\"; exit 1; } # eg automatically release lock when script exits\ntrap \"flock -u 100\" EXIT","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Trap Handling","id":"12","title":"Trap Handling"},"120":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------------------- C-s isearch-forward search forward from current position (C-s to go to next match) C-r isearch-backward search backwards from current position (C-r to go to next match) C-w isearch-yank-word-or-char feed next word to current search (extend) M-p isearch-ring-advance previous search input M-n isearch-ring-retreat next search input M-e isearch-edit-string edit search string again M-s o occur open search string in occur","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » isearch","id":"120","title":"isearch"},"121":{"body":"key fn description\n----------------------------------- M-s o occur get matches for regexp in buffer use during `isearch` to use current search term e enter occur edit mode (C-c C-c to quit) n move to next entry and keep focus in occur buffer p move to previous entry and keep focus in occur buffer C-n goto next line C-p goto previous line o open match in other window C-o open match in other window keep focus in ibuffer key fn description\n--------------------------------------------------------- multi-occur-in-matching-buffers run occur in buffers matching regexp","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » occur","id":"121","title":"occur"},"122":{"body":"key fn description\n----------------------------------- rgrep recursive grep lgrep local dir grep grep raw grep command find-grep run find-grep result in *grep* buffer n/p navigate next/previous match in *grep* buffer q quit *grep* buffer","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » grep","id":"122","title":"grep"},"123":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------------------- C- set-mark-command set start mark to select text C-x C-x exchange-point-and-mark swap mark and point position M-w kill-ring-save copy selected text C-w kill-region kill selected text C-y yank paste selected text M-y yank-pop cycle through kill-ring (only after paste) M-y yank-from-kill-ring interactively select yank from kill ring","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » yank/paste","id":"123","title":"yank/paste"},"124":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------------------ C-x r s  copy-to-register save region in register  C-x r i  insert-register insert content of register ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » register","id":"124","title":"register"},"125":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------------- C-x r m bookmark-set set a bookmark C-x r b bookmark-jump jump to a bookmark C-x r l bookmark-bmenu-list list all bookmarks","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » bookmarks","id":"125","title":"bookmarks"},"126":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------------------ C-x  rectangle-mark-mode activate rectangle-mark-mode string-rectangle insert text in marked rect","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » block/rect","id":"126","title":"block/rect"},"127":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------------------ C-x h mark-whole-buffer mark whole buffer delete-matching-line delete lines matchng regex kill-matching-line kill lines matching regex (puts them in kill ring) keep-lines keep matching lines replace-string replace unconditional M-% query-replace search & replace C-M-% query-replace-regexp search & replace regex","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » mass edit","id":"127","title":"mass edit"},"128":{"body":"key fn description\n--------------------------------------------- C-x n n narrow-to-region show only focused region (narrow) C-x n w widen show whole buffer (wide)","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » narrow","id":"128","title":"narrow"},"129":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------------ M-up/M-down re-arrange items in same hierarchy M-left/M-right change item hierarchy C-RET create new item below current C-S-RET create new TODO item below current S-left/S-right cycle TODO states","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » org","id":"129","title":"org"},"13":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Completion","id":"13","title":"Completion"},"130":{"body":"key fn description\n------------------------------ / cycle through available competions  select completion There is also fido, which is the successor of ido, which also supports fido-vertical-mode in case vertical mode is preferred.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » ido","id":"134","title":"ido"},"135":{"body":"key fn description\n-------------------------- C-z toggle emacs/evil mode C-^ toggle between previous and current buffer C-p after paste cycle kill-ring back C-n after paste cycle kill-ring forward","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » evil","id":"135","title":"evil"},"136":{"body":"key fn description\n-------------------------- i open sub-dir in same buffer + create new directory C copy file/dir R move file/dir (rename) S absolute symbolic link Y relative symbolic link d mark for deletion m mark file/dir at point * % mark by regex * * mark all executables * / mark all dirs u un-mark file/dir U un-mark all t toggle marks x execute marked actions ! run shell command on marked files & run shell command on marked files (async) q quit","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » dired","id":"136","title":"dired"},"137":{"body":"key fn description\n--------------------------------------- n Info-next next page p Info-prev previous page l Info-history-back history go back r Info-history-forward history go forward ^ Info-Up up in info node tree m Info-menu goto menu (by minibuf completion) s Info-search search info g Info-goto-node goto info node (by minibuf completion) Info-history open info history in buffer","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » info","id":"137","title":"info"},"138":{"body":"key fn description\n--------------------------------------------- M-! shell-command run shell command synchronously M-& async-shell-command run shell command asynchronously M-| shell-command-on-region run shell command on region; prefix with C-u to replace region with output of the command","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » shell commands","id":"138","title":"shell commands"},"139":{"body":"Set ESHELL environment variable before starting emacs to change default shell, else customize the explicit-shell-file-name variable. key fn description\n--------------------------------------------- M-x shell start interactive shell C-u M-x shell start interactive shell & rename M-r comint-history-isearch-backward-regexp search history, invoke at end of shell buffer M-p comint-previous-input go one up in history C- M-n comint-next-input go one down in history C- C-c C-a go begin of line (honors prompt) C-c C-e go to end of line C-c C-c interrupt active command","breadcrumbs":"Tools » emacs » interactive shell","id":"139","title":"interactive shell"},"14":{"body":"Completion functions are provided via files and need to be placed in a location covered by $fpath. By convention the completion files are names as _. A completion skeleton for the command foo, stored in _foo #compdef _foo foo function _foo() { ...\n} Alternatively one can install a completion function explicitly by calling compdef  .","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Installation","id":"14","title":"Installation"},"140":{"body":"gpg -o|--output Specify output file -a|--armor Create ascii output -u|--local-user  Specify key for signing -r|--recipient Encrypt for user","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » gpg(1)","id":"140","title":"gpg(1)"},"141":{"body":"gpg --full-generate-key","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Generate new keypair","id":"141","title":"Generate new keypair"},"142":{"body":"gpg -k / --list-key # public keys\ngpg -K / --list-secret-keys # secret keys","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » List keys","id":"142","title":"List keys"},"143":{"body":"gpg --edit-key  Gives prompt to modify KEY ID, common commands: help show help\nsave save & quit list list keys and user IDs\nkey  select subkey \nuid  select user ID  expire change expiration of selected key adduid add user ID\ndeluid delete selected user ID addkey add subkey\ndelkey delete selected subkey","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Edit keys","id":"143","title":"Edit keys"},"144":{"body":"gpg --export --armor --output  \ngpg --export-secret-key --armor --output  \ngpg --import ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Export & Import Keys","id":"144","title":"Export & Import Keys"},"145":{"body":"gpg --keyserver  --send-keys \ngpg --keyserver  --search-keys ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Search & Send keys","id":"145","title":"Search & Send keys"},"146":{"body":"Encrypt file using passphrase and write encrypted data to .gpg. gpg --symmetric  # Decrypt using passphrase\ngpg -o  --decrypt .gpg","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Encrypt (passphrase)","id":"146","title":"Encrypt (passphrase)"},"147":{"body":"Encrypt file with public key of specified recipient and write encrypted data to .gpg. gpg --encrypt -r foo@bar.de  # Decrypt at foos side (private key required)\ngpg -o  --decrypt .gpg","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Encrypt (public key)","id":"147","title":"Encrypt (public key)"},"148":{"body":"Generate a signed file and write to .gpg. # Sign with private key of foo@bar.de\ngpg --sign -u foor@bar.de  # Verify with public key of foo@bar.de\ngpg --verify  # Extract content from signed file\ngpg -o  --decrypt .gpg Without -u use first private key in list gpg -K for signing. Files can also be signed and encrypted at once, gpg will first sign the file and then encrypt it. gpg --sign --encrypt -r  ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Signing","id":"148","title":"Signing"},"149":{"body":"Generate a detached signature and write to .asc. Send .asc along with  when distributing. gpg --detach-sign --armor -u foor@bar.de  # Verify\ngpg --verify .asc  Without -u use first private key in list gpg -K for signing.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Signing (detached)","id":"149","title":"Signing (detached)"},"15":{"body":"Following variables are available in Completion functions: $words # array with command line in words\n$#words # number words\n$CURRENT # index into $words for cursor position\n$words[CURRENT-1] # previous word (relative to cursor position)","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Completion Variables","id":"15","title":"Completion Variables"},"150":{"body":"sec secret key ssb secret subkey pub public key sub public subkey Key usage flags: [S] signing [C] create certificates [E] encrypting [A] authentication","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Abbreviations","id":"150","title":"Abbreviations"},"151":{"body":"http://pgp.mit.edu http://keyserver.ubuntu.com hkps://pgp.mailbox.org","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Keyservers","id":"151","title":"Keyservers"},"152":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Examples","id":"152","title":"Examples"},"153":{"body":"gpg --keyid-format 0xlong ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » List basic key information from file with long keyids","id":"153","title":"List basic key information from file with long keyids"},"154":{"body":"gpg --edit-key  # By default we are on the primary key, can switch to sub key.\ngpg> key 1 # Update the expire date.\ngpg> expire gpg> save # Update keyserver(s) and/or export new pub keyfile.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gpg » Extend expiring key","id":"154","title":"Extend expiring key"},"155":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » radare2(1)","id":"155","title":"radare2(1)"},"156":{"body":"pd  [@ ] # print disassembly for  instructions # with optional temporary seek to ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » print","id":"156","title":"print"},"157":{"body":"fs # list flag-spaces fs  # select flag-space  f # print flags of selected flag-space","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » flags","id":"157","title":"flags"},"158":{"body":"?*~ # '?*' list all commands and '~' grep for  ?*~... # '..' less mode /'...' interactive search","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » help","id":"158","title":"help"},"159":{"body":"> r2 -B   # open  mapped to addr  oob  # reopen current file at ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » relocation","id":"159","title":"relocation"},"16":{"body":"_describe simple completion, just words + description _arguments sophisticated completion, allow to specify actions Completion with _describe _describe MSG COMP MSG simple string with header message COMP array of completions where each entry is \"opt:description\" function _foo() { local -a opts opts=('bla:desc for bla' 'blu:desc for blu') _describe 'foo-msg' opts\n}\ncompdef _foo foo foo  -- foo-msg --\nbla -- desc for bla\nblu -- desc for blu Completion with _arguments _arguments SPEC [SPEC...] where SPEC can have one of the following forms: OPT[DESC]:MSG:ACTION for option flags N:MSG:ACTION for positional arguments Available actions (op1 op2) list possible matches\n->VAL set $state=VAL and continue, `$state` can be checked later in switch case\nFUNC call func to generate matches\n{STR} evaluate `STR` to generate matches","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Completion Functions","id":"16","title":"Completion Functions"},"160":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » Examples","id":"160","title":"Examples"},"161":{"body":"> r2 [-w]  oo+ # re-open for write if -w was not passed s  # seek to position wv  # write 4 byte (dword)","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » Patch file (alter bytes)","id":"161","title":"Patch file (alter bytes)"},"162":{"body":"rasm2 -L # list supported archs > rasm2 -a x86 'mov eax, 0xdeadbeef' b8efbeadde > rasm2 -a x86 -d \"b8efbeadde\" mov eax, 0xdeadbeef","breadcrumbs":"Tools » radare2 » Assemble / Disassmble (rasm2)","id":"162","title":"Assemble / Disassmble (rasm2)"},"163":{"body":"All the examples & notes use qemu-system-x86_64 but in most cases this can be swapped with the system emulator for other architectures.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » qemu(1)","id":"163","title":"qemu(1)"},"164":{"body":"Graphic mode: Ctrl+Alt+g release mouse capture from VM Ctrl+Alt+1 switch to display of VM\nCtrl+Alt+2 switch to qemu monitor No graphic mode: Ctrl+a h print help\nCtrl+a x exit emulator\nCtrl+a c switch between monitor and console","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Keybindings","id":"164","title":"Keybindings"},"165":{"body":"Following command-line gives a good starting point to assemble a VM: qemu-system-x86_64 \\ -cpu host -enable-kvm -smp 4 \\ -m 8G \\ -vga virtio -display sdl,gl=on \\ -boot menu=on \\ -cdrom  \\ -hda  \\ -device qemu-xhci,id=xhci \\ -device usb-host,bus=xhci.0,vendorid=0x05e1,productid=0x0408,id=capture-card","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » VM config snippet","id":"165","title":"VM config snippet"},"166":{"body":"# Emulate host CPU in guest VM, enabling all supported host featured (requires KVM).\n# List available CPUs `qemu-system-x86_64 -cpu help`.\n-cpu host # Enable KVM instead software emulation.\n-enable-kvm # Configure number of guest CPUs.\n-smp  # Configure size of guest RAM.\n-m 8G","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » CPU & RAM","id":"166","title":"CPU & RAM"},"167":{"body":"# Use sdl window as display and enable openGL context.\n-display sdl,gl=on # Use vnc server as display (eg on display `:42` here).\n-display vnc=localhost:42 # Confifure virtio as 3D video graphic accelerator (requires virgl in guest).\n-vga virtio","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Graphic & Display","id":"167","title":"Graphic & Display"},"168":{"body":"# Enables boot menu to select boot device (enter with `ESC`).\n-boot menu=on","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Boot Menu","id":"168","title":"Boot Menu"},"169":{"body":"# Attach cdrom drive with iso to a VM.\n-cdrom  # Attach disk drive to a VM.\n-hda  # Generic way to configure & attach a drive to a VM.\n-drive file=,format=qcow2 Create a disk with qemu-img To create a qcow2 disk (qemu copy-on-write) of size 10G: qemu-img create -f qcow2 disk.qcow2 10G The disk does not contain any partitions or a partition table. We can format the disk from within the guest as following example: # Create `gpt` partition table.\nsudo parted /dev/sda mktable gpt # Create two equally sized primary partitions.\nsudo parted /dev/sda mkpart primary 0% 50%\nsudo parted /dev/sda mkpart primary 50% 100% # Create filesystem on each partition.\nsudo mkfs.ext3 /dev/sda1\nsudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda2 lsblk -f /dev/sda NAME FSTYPE LABEL UUID FSAVAIL FSUSE% MOUNTPOINT sda ├─sda1 ext3 .... └─sda2 ext4 ....","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Block devices","id":"169","title":"Block devices"},"17":{"body":"Skeleton to copy/paste for writing simple completions. Assume a program foo with the following interface: foo -c green|red|blue -s low|high -f  -d 
 -h The completion handler could be implemented as follows in a file called _foo: #compdef _foo foo function _foo_color() { local colors=() colors+=('green:green color') colors+=('red:red color') colors+=('blue:blue color') _describe \"color\" colors\n} function _foo() { _arguments \\ \"-c[define color]:color:->s_color\" \\ \"-s[select sound]:sound:(low high)\" \\ \"-f[select file]:file:_files\" \\ \"-d[select dir]:dir:_files -/\" \\ \"-h[help]\" case $state in s_color) _foo_color;; esac\n}","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Example","id":"17","title":"Example"},"170":{"body":"Host Controller # Add XHCI USB controller to the VM (supports USB 3.0, 2.0, 1.1).\n# `id=xhci` creates a usb bus named `xhci`.\n-device qemu-xhci,id=xhci USB Device # Pass-through USB device from host identified by vendorid & productid and\n# attach to usb bus `xhci.0` (defined with controller `id`).\n-device usb-host,bus=xhci.0,vendorid=0x05e1,productid=0x0408","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » USB","id":"170","title":"USB"},"171":{"body":"# Open gdbstub on tcp `` (`-s` shorthand for `-gdb tcp::1234`).\n-gdb tcp:: # Freeze guest CPU at startup and wait for debugger connection.\n-S","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Debugging","id":"171","title":"Debugging"},"172":{"body":"# Create raw tcp server for `serial IO` and wait until a client connects\n# before executing the guest.\n-serial tcp:localhost:12345,server,wait # Create telnet server for `serial IO` and wait until a client connects\n# before executing the guest.\n-serial telnet:localhost:12345,server,wait # Configure redirection for the QEMU `mointor`, arguments similar to `-serial`\n# above.\n-monitor ... In server mode use nowait to execute guest without waiting for a client connection.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » IO redirection","id":"172","title":"IO redirection"},"173":{"body":"# Redirect host tcp port `1234` to guest port `4321`.\n-nic user,hostfwd=tcp:localhost:1234-:4321","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Network","id":"173","title":"Network"},"174":{"body":"# Attach a `virtio-9p-pci` device to the VM.\n# The guest requires 9p support and can mount the shared drive as:\n# mount -t 9p -o trans=virtio someName /mnt\n-virtfs local,id=someName,path=,mount_tag=someName,security_model=none","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Shared drives","id":"174","title":"Shared drives"},"175":{"body":"# List debug items.\n-d help # Write debug log to file instead stderr.\n-D  # Examples\n-d in_asm Log executed guest instructions.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Debug logging","id":"175","title":"Debug logging"},"176":{"body":"# List name of all trace points.\n-trace help # Enable trace points matching pattern and optionally write trace to file.\n-trace [,file=] # Enable trace points for all events listed in the  file.\n# File must contain one event/pattern per line.\n-trace events=","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Tracing","id":"176","title":"Tracing"},"177":{"body":"VM snapshots require that there is at least on qcow2 disk attached to the VM ( VM Snapshots ). Commands for qemu Monitor or QMP : # List available snapshots.\ninfo snapshots # Create/Load/Delete snapshot with name .\nsavevm \nloadvm \ndelvm  The snapshot can also be directly specified when invoking qemu as: qemu-system-x86_64 \\ -loadvm  \\ ...","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » VM snapshots","id":"177","title":"VM snapshots"},"178":{"body":"Online migration example: # Start machine 1 on host ABC.\nqemu-system-x86_64 -monitor stdio -cdrom  # Prepare machine 2 on host DEF as migration target.\n# Listen for any connection on port 12345.\nqemu-system-x86_64 -monitor stdio -incoming tcp:0.0.0.0:12345 # Start migration from the machine 1 monitor console.\n(qemu) migrate tcp:DEF:12345 Save to external file example: ```bash\n# Start machine 1.\nqemu-system-x86_64 -monitor stdio -cdrom  # Save VM state to file.\n(qemu) migrate \"exec:gzip -c > vm.gz\" # Load VM from file.\nqemu-system-x86_64 -monitor stdio -incoming \"exec: gzip -d -c vm.gz\" The migration source machine and the migration target machine should be launched with the same parameters.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » VM Migration","id":"178","title":"VM Migration"},"179":{"body":"Example command line to directly boot a Kernel with an initrd ramdisk. qemu-system-x86_64 \\ -cpu host \\ -enable-kvm \\ -kernel /arch/x86/boot/bzImage \\ -append \"earlyprintk=ttyS0 console=ttyS0 nokaslr init=/init debug\" \\ -initrd /initramfs.cpio.gz \\ ... Instructions to build a minimal Kernel and initrd .","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Appendix: Direct Kernel boot","id":"179","title":"Appendix: Direct Kernel boot"},"18":{"body":"For this example we assume that the command foo takes at least three optional arguments such as foo arg1 arg2 arg3 [argN..] function _foo() { _arguments \\ \"1:opt 1:(a b c)\" \\ \":opt next:(d e f)\" \\ \"*:opt all:(u v w)\"\n} Explanation: 1:MSG:ACTION sets completion for the first optional argument :MSG:ACTION sets completion for the next optional argument *:MSG:ACTION sets completion for the optional argument where none of the previous rules apply, so in our example for arg3, argN... _files is a zsh builtin utility function to complete files/dirs see zsh completion functions zsh completion utility functions","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Example with optional arguments","id":"18","title":"Example with optional arguments"},"180":{"body":"test: test.s as -o test.o test.s ld -o test test.o testc.o trace: test qemu-x86_64 -singlestep -d nochain,cpu ./test 2>&1 | awk '/RIP/ { print $$1; }' clean: $(RM) test test-bin test.o .section .text, \"ax\" .global _start\n_start: xor %rax, %rax mov $0x8, %rax\n1: cmp $0, %rax je 2f dec %rax jmp 1b\n2: # x86-64 exit(2) syscall mov $0, %rdi mov $60, %rax syscall","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » Appendix: Cheap instruction tracer","id":"180","title":"Appendix: Cheap instruction tracer"},"181":{"body":"QEMU USB QEMU IMG QEMU Tools QEMU System QEMU Invocation (command line args) QEMU Monitor QEMU machine protocol (QMP) QEMU VM Snapshots","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qemu » References","id":"181","title":"References"},"182":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » pacman » pacman(1)","id":"182","title":"pacman(1)"},"183":{"body":"pacman -Sy refresh package database\npacman -S  install pkg\npacman -Ss  search remote package database\npacman -Si  get info for pkg\npacman -Su upgrade installed packages\npacman -Sc clean local package cache","breadcrumbs":"Tools » pacman » Remote package repositories","id":"183","title":"Remote package repositories"},"184":{"body":"pacman -Rsn  uninstall package and unneeded deps + config files","breadcrumbs":"Tools » pacman » Remove packages","id":"184","title":"Remove packages"},"185":{"body":"Local package database of installed packages. pacman -Q list all installed packages\npacman -Qs  search local package database\npacman -Ql  list files installed by pkg\npacman -Qo  query package that owns file\npacman -Qe only list explicitly installed packages","breadcrumbs":"Tools » pacman » Local package database","id":"185","title":"Local package database"},"186":{"body":"Local file database which allows to search packages owning certain files. Also searches non installed packages, but database must be synced. pacman -Fy refresh file database\npacman -Fl  list files in pkg (must not be installed)\npacman -Fx  search","breadcrumbs":"Tools » pacman » Local file database","id":"186","title":"Local file database"},"187":{"body":"Uninstall all orphaned packages (including config files) that were installed as dependencies. pacman -Rsn $(pacman -Qtdq) List explicitly installed packages that are not required as dependency by any package and sort by size. pacman -Qetq | xargs pacman -Qi | awk '/Name/ { name=$3 } /Installed Size/ { printf \"%8.2f%s %s\\n\", $4, $5, name }' | sort -h Install package into different root directory but keep using the default database. pacman --root abc --dbpath /var/lib/pacman -S mingw-w64-gcc","breadcrumbs":"Tools » pacman » Hacks","id":"187","title":"Hacks"},"188":{"body":"Online playground","breadcrumbs":"Tools » dot » dot(1)","id":"188","title":"dot(1)"},"189":{"body":"Can be rendered to svg with the following command. dot -T svg -o g.svg g.dot Example dot file. // file: g.dot\ndigraph { // Render ranks from left to right. rankdir=LR // Make background transparent. bgcolor=transparent // Global node attributes. node [shape=box] // Global edge attributes. edge [style=dotted,color=red] // Add nodes & edge. stage1 -> stage2 // Add multiple edges at once. stage2 -> { stage3_1, stage3_2 } // Add edge with custom attributes. stage3_2 -> stage4 [label=\"some text\"] // Set custom attributes for specific node. stage4 [color=green,fillcolor=lightgray,style=\"filled,dashed\",label=\"s4\"] // Create a subgraph. This can be used to group nodes/edges or as scope for // global node/edge attributes. // If the name starts with 'cluster' a border is drawn. subgraph cluster_1 { stage5_1 stage5_2 } // Add some edges to subgraph nodes. stage3_1 -> { stage5_1, stage5_2 }\n} Rendered svg file. g.svg","breadcrumbs":"Tools » dot » Example dot file to copy & paste from.","id":"189","title":"Example dot file to copy & paste from."},"19":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » bash(1)","id":"19","title":"bash(1)"},"190":{"body":"DOT language Attributes Node shapes Colors User manual","breadcrumbs":"Tools » dot » References","id":"190","title":"References"},"191":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » ffmpeg » ffmpeg (1)","id":"191","title":"ffmpeg (1)"},"192":{"body":"Following snippet allows to select a window which is then captured. #!/bin/bash echo \"Click on window to record ..\"\n# Extract window size and x,y offset.\nvideo_args=$(xwininfo \\ | awk '/Absolute upper-left X:/ { xoff = $4 } /Absolute upper-left Y:/ { yoff=$4 } /Width:/ { if ($2 % 2 == 1) { width=$2-1; } else { width=$2; } } /Height:/ { if ($2 % 2 == 1) { height=$2-1; } else { height=$2; } } END { printf \"-video_size %dx%d -i :0.0+%d,%d\", width, height, xoff, yoff }') ffmpeg -framerate 25 -f x11grab $video_args -pix_fmt yuv420p $@ output.mp4 Use yuv420p pixel format if video is played on the web ( ref ) The input -i 0,0+xoff,yoff means to capture $DISPLAY=0.0 starting at the coordinate (xoff, yoff), which is the left-upper corner, and the size of the capture is defined by the -video_size argument.","breadcrumbs":"Tools » ffmpeg » screen capture specific window (x11)","id":"192","title":"screen capture specific window (x11)"},"193":{"body":"# Launch interactive shell.\ngnuplot # Launch interactive shell.\ngnuplot [opt] opt: -p ................ persist plot window -c  ......... run script file -e \"; ..\" ... run cmd(s)","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gnuplot » gnuplot (1)","id":"193","title":"gnuplot (1)"},"194":{"body":"# Plot title.\nset title \"the plot\" # Labels.\nset xlabel \"abc\"\nset ylabel \"def\" # Grid.\nset grind # Output format, 'help set term' for all output formats.\nset term svg\n# Output file.\nset output \"out.svg\" # Make axis logarithmic to given base.\nset logscale x 2 # Change separator, default is whitespace.\nset datafile separator \",\"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gnuplot » Frequently used configuration","id":"194","title":"Frequently used configuration"},"195":{"body":"# With specific style (eg lines, linespoint, boxes, steps, impulses, ..).\nplot \"\" with  > cat data.txt\n1 1 3\n2 2 2\n3 3 1\n4 2 2 # Plot specific column.\nplot \"data.txt\" using 1:2, \"data.txt\" using 1:3\n# Equivalent using the special file \"\", which re-uses the previous input file.\nplot \"data.txt\" using 1:2, \"\" using 1:3 # Plot piped data.\nplot \"< head -n2 data.txt\" # Plot with alternate title.\nplot \"data.txt\" title \"moose\"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gnuplot » Plot","id":"195","title":"Plot"},"196":{"body":"# Plot two functions in the range 0-10.\nplot [0:10] 10*x, 20*x","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gnuplot » Example: Specify range directly during plot","id":"196","title":"Example: Specify range directly during plot"},"197":{"body":"# file: mem_lat.plot set title \"memory latency (different strides)\"\nset xlabel \"array in KB\"\nset ylabel \"cycles / access\" set logscale x 2 plot \"stride_32.txt\" title \"32\" with linespoints, \\ \"stride_64.txt\" title \"64\" with linespoints, \\ \"stride_128.txt\" title \"128\" with linespoints, \\ \"stride_256.txt\" title \"256\" with linespoints, \\ \"stride_512.txt\" title \"512\" with linespoints On Linux x86_64, mem_lat.c provides an example which can be run as follows. gcc -o mem_lat mem_lat.c -g -O3 -Wall -Werror for stride in 32 64 128 256 512; do \\ taskset -c 1 ./mem_lat 128 $stride | tee stride_$stride.txt ; \\\ndone gnuplot -p -c mem_lat.plot","breadcrumbs":"Tools » gnuplot » Example: multiple data sets in plot","id":"197","title":"Example: multiple data sets in plot"},"198":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Tools » restic » restic(1)","id":"198","title":"restic(1)"},"199":{"body":"# Create a local backup repository.\nrestic -r  init # Create a backup repository on a remote host.\nrestic -r sftp:user@host: init","breadcrumbs":"Tools » restic » Create new snapshot repository","id":"199","title":"Create new snapshot repository"},"2":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » zsh(1)","id":"2","title":"zsh(1)"},"20":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Expansion","id":"20","title":"Expansion"},"200":{"body":"Restore files matching  from the latest snapshot (pseudo snapshot ID) into . restic -r  restore -i  --target  latest","breadcrumbs":"Tools » restic » Example: Restore file pattern from latest snapshot","id":"200","title":"Example: Restore file pattern from latest snapshot"},"201":{"body":"Mount snapshots as user filesystem (fuse) to given mount point. restic -r  mount  # Mounted snapshots can be limited by host.\nrestic -r  mount --host   # Mounted snapshots can be limited by path (abs path).\nrestic -r  mount --path  ","breadcrumbs":"Tools » restic » Mount snapshots","id":"201","title":"Mount snapshots"},"202":{"body":"Check the repository for errors and report them. restic -r  check Check the repository for non-referenced data and remove it. restic -r  prune","breadcrumbs":"Tools » restic » Repository maintenance","id":"202","title":"Repository maintenance"},"203":{"body":"restic read the docs sftp","breadcrumbs":"Tools » restic » References","id":"203","title":"References"},"204":{"body":"qrencode -s N pixels per feature length Generate wifi qr code for WPA2 secured network. # Generate on terminal.\nqrencode -t ansiutf8 'WIFI:S:;T:WPA2;P:;;' # Generate picture for printing.\nqrencode -t png -o wifi.png 'WIFI:S:;T:WPA2;P:;;'","breadcrumbs":"Tools » qrencode » qrencode(1)","id":"204","title":"qrencode(1)"},"205":{"body":"lsof pidstat pgrep ps pmap pstack taskset nice","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » Process management & inspection","id":"205","title":"Process management & inspection"},"206":{"body":"lsof -r  ..... repeatedly execute command ervery  seconds -a ......... AND slection filters instead ORing (OR: default) -p  ... filter by  +fg ........ show file flags for file descripros -n ......... don't convert network addr to hostnames -P ......... don't convert network port to service names -i <@h[:p]>. show connections to h (hostname|ip addr) with optional port p -s  ... in conjunction with '-i' filter for protocol  in state  -U ......... show unix domain sockets ('@' indicates abstract sock name, see unix(7)) file flags: R/W/RW ..... read/write/read-write CR ......... create AP ......... append TR ......... truncate -s protocols TCP, UDP -s states (TCP) CLOSED, IDLE, BOUND, LISTEN, ESTABLISHED, SYN_SENT, SYN_RCDV, ESTABLISHED, CLOSE_WAIT, FIN_WAIT1, CLOSING, LAST_ACK, FIN_WAIT_2, TIME_WAIT -s states (UDP) Unbound, Idle","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » lsof(8)","id":"206","title":"lsof(8)"},"207":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » Examples","id":"207","title":"Examples"},"208":{"body":"Show open files with file flags for process: lsof +fg -p ","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » File flags","id":"208","title":"File flags"},"209":{"body":"Show open tcp connections for $USER: lsof -a -u $USER -i TCP Note : -a ands the results. If -a is not given all open files matching $USER and all tcp connections are listed ( ored ).","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » Open TCP connections","id":"209","title":"Open TCP connections"},"21":{"body":"# generate sequence from n to m\n{n..m}\n# generate sequence from n to m step by s\n{n..m..s} # expand cartesian product\n{a,b}{c,d}","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Generator","id":"21","title":"Generator"},"210":{"body":"Show open connections to localhost for $USER: lsof -a -u $USER -i @localhost","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » Open connection to specific host","id":"210","title":"Open connection to specific host"},"211":{"body":"Show open connections to port :1234 for $USER: lsof -a -u $USER -i :1234","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » Open connection to specific port","id":"211","title":"Open connection to specific port"},"212":{"body":"lsof -i 4TCP -s TCP:ESTABLISHED","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » IPv4 TCP connections in ESTABLISHED state","id":"212","title":"IPv4 TCP connections in ESTABLISHED state"},"213":{"body":"This may help to find which processes keep devices busy when trying to unmount and the device is currently busy. # Assuming /proc is a mount point.\nlsof /proc","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » lsof » List open files in a mounted directory.","id":"213","title":"List open files in a mounted directory."},"214":{"body":"pidstat [opt] [interval] [cont] -U [user] show username instead UID, optionally only show for user -r memory statistics -d I/O statistics -h single line per process and no lines with average","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » pidstat » pidstat(1)","id":"214","title":"pidstat(1)"},"215":{"body":"pidstat -r -p  [interval] [count] minor_pagefault: Happens when the page needed is already in memory but not allocated to the faulting process, in that case the kernel only has to create a new page-table entry pointing to the shared physical page (not required to load a memory page from disk). major_pagefault: Happens when the page needed is NOT in memory, the kernel has to create a new page-table entry and populate the physical page (required to load a memory page from disk).","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » pidstat » Page fault and memory utilization","id":"215","title":"Page fault and memory utilization"},"216":{"body":"pidstat -d -p  [interval] [count]","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » pidstat » I/O statistics","id":"216","title":"I/O statistics"},"217":{"body":"pgrep [opts]  -n only list newest matching process -u  only show matching for user  -l additionally list command -a additionally list command + arguments -x match exactly","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » pgrep » pgrep(1)","id":"217","title":"pgrep(1)"},"218":{"body":"For example attach gdb to newest zsh process from $USER. gdb -p $(pgrep -n -u $USER zsh)","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » pgrep » Debug newest process","id":"218","title":"Debug newest process"},"219":{"body":"ps [opt] opt: --no-header .... do not print column header -o  ....... comma separated list of output columns -p  ....... only show pid -C  ...... only show processes matching name -T ............. list threads --signames ..... use short signames instead bitmasks Set PS_FORMAT env variable to setup default output columns. Frequently used output columns pid process id\nppid parent process id\npgid process group id\ntid thread id comm name of process\ncmd name of process + args (full) etime elapsed time (since process started)\nuser user owning process\nthcount thread count of process\nnice nice value (-20 highest priority to 19 lowest) pcpu cpu utilization (percent)\npmem physical resident set (rss) (percent)\nrss physical memory (in kb)\nvsz virtual memory (in kb) sig mask of pending signals\nsigcatch mask of caught signals\nsigignore mask of ignored signals\nsigmask mask of blocked signals","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » ps » ps(1)","id":"219","title":"ps(1)"},"22":{"body":"# default value\nbar=${foo:-some_val} # if $foo set, then bar=$foo else bar=some_val # alternate value\nbar=${foo:+bla $foo} # if $foo set, then bar=\"bla $foo\" else bar=\"\" # check param set\nbar=${foo:?msg} # if $foo set, then bar=$foo else exit and print msg # indirect\nFOO=foo\nBAR=FOO\nbar=${!BAR} # deref value of BAR -> bar=$FOO # prefix\n${foo#prefix} # remove prefix when expanding $foo\n# suffix\n${foo%suffix} # remove suffix when expanding $foo # substitute\n${foo/pattern/string} # replace pattern with string when expanding foo\n# pattern starts with\n# '/' replace all occurences of pattern\n# '#' pattern match at beginning\n# '%' pattern match at end # set programmatically with priintf builtin\nprintf -v \"VAR1\" \"abc\"\nNAME=VAR2\nprintf -v \"$NAME\" \"%s\" \"def\" Note: prefix/suffix/pattern are expanded as pathnames .","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Parameter","id":"22","title":"Parameter"},"220":{"body":"# Print the cpu affinity for each thread of process 31084.\nfor tid in $(ps -o tid --no-header -T -p 31084); do taskset -c -p $tid;\ndone","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » ps » Example: Use output for scripting","id":"220","title":"Example: Use output for scripting"},"221":{"body":"watch -n1 ps -o pid,pcpu,pmem,rss,vsz,state,user,comm -C fish","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » ps » Example: Watch processes by name","id":"221","title":"Example: Watch processes by name"},"222":{"body":"# With signal masks.\nps -o pid,user,sig,sigcatch,sigignore,sigmask,comm -p 66570 # With signal names.\nps --signames -o pid,user,sig,sigcatch,sigignore,sigmask,comm -p 66570","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » ps » Example: Show signal information","id":"222","title":"Example: Show signal information"},"223":{"body":"pmap [opts]  Dump virtual memory map of process. Compared to /proc//maps it shows the size of the mappings.\nopts: -p show full path in the mapping -x show details (eg RSS usage of each segment)","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » pmap » pmap(1)","id":"223","title":"pmap(1)"},"224":{"body":"pstack  Dump stack for all threads of process.","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » pstack » pstack(1)","id":"224","title":"pstack(1)"},"225":{"body":"Set cpu affinity for new processes or already running ones. # Pin all (-a) tasks of new command on cores 0,1,2,4.\ntaskset -ac 0-2,4 CMD [ARGS] # Pin all tasks of running PID onto cores 0,2,4.\ntaskset -ac 0-5:2 -p PID","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » taskset » taskset(1)","id":"225","title":"taskset(1)"},"226":{"body":"Utility script to extract cpu lists grouped by the last-level-cache. import subprocess res = subprocess.run([\"lscpu\", \"-p=cpu,cache\"], capture_output=True, check=True) LLC2CPU = dict() for line in res.stdout.decode().splitlines(): if line.startswith(\"#\"): continue cpu, cache = line.split(\",\") llc = cache.split(\":\")[-1] LLC2CPU.setdefault(llc, list()).append(int(cpu)) LLC2RANGE = dict() for llc, cpus in LLC2CPU.items(): first_cpu = cpus[0] prev_cpu = cpus[0] for cpu in cpus[1:]: if cpu != prev_cpu + 1: LLC2RANGE.setdefault(llc, list()).append(f\"{first_cpu}-{prev_cpu}\") # New range begins. first_cpu = cpu prev_cpu = cpu # Trailing range. LLC2RANGE.setdefault(llc, list()).append(f\"{first_cpu}-{prev_cpu}\") print(LLC2RANGE)","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » taskset » Example","id":"226","title":"Example"},"227":{"body":"Adjust niceness of a new command or running process. Niceness influences the scheduling priority and ranges between: -20 most favorable 19 least favorable # Adjust niceness +5 for the launched process.\nnice -n 5 yes # Adjust niceness of running process.\nrenice -n 5 -p PID","breadcrumbs":"Process management & inspection » nice » nice(1)","id":"227","title":"nice(1)"},"228":{"body":"time strace ltrace perf OProfile callgrind valgrind vtune","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » Trace and Profile","id":"228","title":"Trace and Profile"},"229":{"body":"# statistics of process run\n/usr/bin/time -v ","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » time » /usr/bin/time(1)","id":"229","title":"/usr/bin/time(1)"},"23":{"body":"* match any string\n? match any single char\n\\\\ match backslash\n[abc] match any char of 'a' 'b' 'c'\n[a-z] match any char between 'a' - 'z'\n[^ab] negate, match all not 'a' 'b'\n[:class:] match any char in class, available: alnum,alpha,ascii,blank,cntrl,digit,graph,lower, print,punct,space,upper,word,xdigit With extglob shell option enabled it is possible to have more powerful patterns. In the following pattern-list is one ore more patterns separated by | char. ?(pattern-list) matches zero or one occurrence of the given patterns\n*(pattern-list) matches zero or more occurrences of the given patterns\n+(pattern-list) matches one or more occurrences of the given patterns\n@(pattern-list) matches one of the given patterns\n!(pattern-list) matches anything except one of the given patterns Note: shopt -s extglob/shopt -u extglob to enable/disable extglob option.","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Pathname","id":"23","title":"Pathname"},"230":{"body":"strace [opts] [prg] -f .......... follow child processes on fork(2) -ff ......... follow fork and separate output file per child -p  .... attach to running process -s  ... max string size, truncate of longer (default: 32) -e  ... expression for trace filtering -o  ... log output into  -c .......... dump syscall statitics at the end -C .......... like -c but dump regular ouput as well -k .......... dump stack trace for each syscall -P  ... only trace syscall accesing path -y .......... print paths for FDs -tt ......... print absolute timestamp (with us precision) -r .......... print relative timestamp -z .......... log only successful syscalls -Z .......... log only failed syscalls -n .......... print syscall numbers -y .......... translate fds (eg file path, socket) -yy ......... translate fds with all information (eg IP) -x .......... print non-ASCII chars as hex string -v .......... print all arguments (non-abbreviated) : trace=syscall[,syscall] .... trace only syscall listed trace=file ................. trace all syscall that take a filename as arg trace=process .............. trace process management related syscalls trace=signal ............... trace signal related syscalls signal ..................... trace signals delivered to the process","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » strace » strace(1)","id":"230","title":"strace(1)"},"231":{"body":"Trace open(2) & socket(2) syscalls for a running process + child processes: strace -f -e trace=open,socket -p  Trace signals delivered to a running process: strace -e signal -e 'trace=!all' -p  Show successful calls to perf_event_open((2) without abbreviating arguments. strace -v -z -e trace=perf_event_open perf stat -e cycles ls","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » strace » Examples","id":"231","title":"Examples"},"232":{"body":"ltrace [opts] [prg] -f .......... follow child processes on fork(2) -p  .... attach to running process -o  ... log output into  -l  . show who calls into lib matched by  -C .......... demangle -e  . show calls symbols matched by  -x  . which symbol table entry points to trace (can be of form sym_pattern@lib_pattern) -n  number of spaces to indent nested calls","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » ltrace » ltrace(1)","id":"232","title":"ltrace(1)"},"233":{"body":"List which program/libs call into libstdc++: ltrace -l '*libstdc++*' -C -o ltrace.log ./main List calls to specific symbols: ltrace -e malloc -e free ./main Trace symbols from dlopen(3)ed libraries. # Assume libfoo.so would be dynamically loaded via dlopen.\nltrace -x '@libfoo.so' # Trace all dlopened symbols.\nltrace -x '*'\n# Trace all symbols from dlopened libraries which name match the\n# pattern \"liby*\".\nltrace -x '@liby*'\n# Trace symbol \"foo\" from all dlopened libraries matching the pattern.\nltrace -x 'foo@liby*'","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » ltrace » Example","id":"233","title":"Example"},"234":{"body":"perf list show supported hw/sw events & metrics -v ........ print longer event descriptions --details . print information on the perf event names and expressions used internally by events perf stat -p  ..... show stats for running process -o  .... write output to file (default stderr) -I  ...... show stats periodically over interval  -e  ...... select event(s) -M  ..... print metric(s), this adds the metric events --all-user ... configure all selected events for user space --all-kernel . configure all selected events for kernel space perf top -p  .. show stats for running process -F  ... sampling frequency -K ........ hide kernel threads perf record -p  ............... record stats for running process -o  .............. write output to file (default perf.data) -F  ................ sampling frequency --call-graph  .. [fp, dwarf, lbr] method how to caputre backtrace fp : use frame-pointer, need to compile with -fno-omit-frame-pointer dwarf: use .cfi debug information lbr : use hardware last branch record facility -g ..................... short-hand for --call-graph fp -e  ................ select event(s) --all-user ............. configure all selected events for user space --all-kernel ........... configure all selected events for kernel space -M intel ............... use intel disassembly in annotate perf report -n .................... annotate symbols with nr of samples --stdio ............... report to stdio, if not presen tui mode -g graph,0.5,callee ... show callee based call chains with value >0.5 Useful : page-faults minor-faults major-faults cpu-cycles` task-clock","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » perf(1)","id":"234","title":"perf(1)"},"235":{"body":"Events to sample are specified with the -e option, either pass a comma separated list or pass -e multiple times. Events are specified in the following form name[:modifier]. The list and description of the modifier can be found in the perf-list(1) manpage under EVENT MODIFIERS. # L1 i$ misses in user space\n# L2 i$ stats in user/kernel space mixed\n# Sample specified events.\nperf stat -e L1-icache-load-misses:u \\ -e l2_rqsts.all_code_rd:uk,l2_rqsts.code_rd_hit:k,l2_rqsts.code_rd_miss:k \\ -- stress -c 2 The --all-user and --all-kernel options append a :u and :k modifier to all specified events. Therefore the following two command lines are equivalent. # 1)\nperf stat -e cycles:u,instructions:u -- ls # 2)\nperf stat --all-user -e cycles,instructions -- ls","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Select specific events","id":"235","title":"Select specific events"},"236":{"body":"In case perf does not provide a symbolic name for an event, the event can be specified in a raw form as r + UMask + EventCode. The following is an example for the L2_RQSTS.CODE_RD_HIT event with EventCode=0x24 and UMask=0x10 on my laptop with a sandybridge uarch. perf stat -e l2_rqsts.code_rd_hit -e r1024 -- ls\n# Performance counter stats for 'ls':\n#\n# 33.942 l2_rqsts.code_rd_hit\n# 33.942 r1024","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Raw events","id":"236","title":"Raw events"},"237":{"body":"The intel/perfmon repository provides a performance event databases for the different intel uarchs. The table in mapfile.csv can be used to lookup the corresponding uarch, just grab the family model from the procfs. cat /proc/cpuinfo | awk '/^vendor_id/ { V=$3 } /^cpu family/ { F=$4 } /^model\\s*:/ { printf \"%s-%d-%x\\n\",V,F,$3 }' The table in performance monitoring events describes how events are sorted into the different files.","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Find raw performance counter events (intel)","id":"237","title":"Find raw performance counter events (intel)"},"238":{"body":"Perf also defines some own symbolic names for events. An example is the cache-references event. The perf_event_open(2) manpage gives the following description. perf_event_open(2) PERF_COUNT_HW_CACHE_REFERENCES Cache accesses. Usually this indicates Last Level Cache accesses but this may vary depending on your CPU. This may include prefetches and coherency messages; again this depends on the design of your CPU. The sysfs can be consulted to get the concrete performance counter on the given system. cat /sys/devices/cpu/events/cache-misses\n# event=0x2e,umask=0x41","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Raw events for perfs own symbolic names","id":"238","title":"Raw events for perfs own symbolic names"},"239":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Flamegraph","id":"239","title":"Flamegraph"},"24":{"body":"Note: The trick with bash I/O redirection is to interpret from left-to-right. # stdout & stderr to file\ncommand >file 2>&1\n# equivalent\ncommand &>file # stderr to stdout & stdout to file\ncommand 2>&1 >file The article Bash One-Liners Explained, Part III: All about redirections contains some nice visualization to explain bash redirections.","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » I/O redirection","id":"24","title":"I/O redirection"},"240":{"body":"perf record -g -e cpu-cycles -p \nperf script | FlameGraph/stackcollapse-perf.pl | FlameGraph/flamegraph.pl > cycles-flamegraph.svg","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Flamegraph with single event trace","id":"240","title":"Flamegraph with single event trace"},"241":{"body":"perf record -g -e cpu-cycles,page-faults -p \nperf script --per-event-dump\n# fold & generate as above","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Flamegraph with multiple event traces","id":"241","title":"Flamegraph with multiple event traces"},"242":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Examples","id":"242","title":"Examples"},"243":{"body":"#define NOP4 \"nop\\nnop\\nnop\\nnop\\n\"\n#define NOP32 NOP4 NOP4 NOP4 NOP4 NOP4 NOP4 NOP4 NOP4\n#define NOP256 NOP32 NOP32 NOP32 NOP32 NOP32 NOP32 NOP32 NOP32\n#define NOP2048 NOP256 NOP256 NOP256 NOP256 NOP256 NOP256 NOP256 NOP256 int main() { for (unsigned i = 0; i < 2000000; ++i) { asm volatile(NOP2048); }\n} perf stat -e cycles,instructions ./noploop\n# Performance counter stats for './noploop':\n#\n# 1.031.075.940 cycles\n# 4.103.534.341 instructions # 3,98 insn per cycle","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Estimate max instructions per cycle","id":"243","title":"Estimate max instructions per cycle"},"244":{"body":"The following gives an example for a scenario where we have the following calls main -> do_foo() -> do_work() main -> do_bar() -> do_work() perf report --stdio -g graph,caller # Children Self Command Shared Object Symbols\n# ........ ........ ....... .................... .................\n#\n# 49.71% 49.66% bench bench [.] do_work\n# |\n# --49.66%--_start <- callstack bottom\n# __libc_start_main\n# 0x7ff366c62ccf\n# main\n# |\n# |--25.13%--do_bar\n# | do_work <- callstack top\n# |\n# --24.53%--do_foo\n# do_work perf report --stdio -g graph,callee # Children Self Command Shared Object Symbols\n# ........ ........ ....... .................... .................\n#\n# 49.71% 49.66% bench bench [.] do_work\n# |\n# ---do_work <- callstack top\n# |\n# |--25.15%--do_bar\n# | main\n# | 0x7ff366c62ccf\n# | __libc_start_main\n# | _start <- callstack bottom\n# |\n# --24.55%--do_foo\n# main\n# 0x7ff366c62ccf\n# __libc_start_main\n# _start <- callstack bottom","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » Caller vs callee callstacks","id":"244","title":"Caller vs callee callstacks"},"245":{"body":"intel/perfmon - intel PMU event database per uarch intel/perfmon-html - a html rendered version of the PMU events with search intel/perfmon/mapfile.csv - processor family to uarch mapping linux/perf/events - x86 PMU events known to perf tools linux/arch/events - x86 PMU events linux kernel wikichip - computer architecture wiki perf-list(1) - manpage perf_event_open(2) - manpage intel/sdm - intel software developer manuals (eg Optimization Reference Manual)","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » perf » References","id":"245","title":"References"},"246":{"body":"operf -g -p  -g ...... caputre call-graph information opreport [opt] FILE show time spent per binary image -l ...... show time spent per symbol -c ...... show callgraph information (see below) -a ...... add column with time spent accumulated over child nodes ophelp show supported hw/sw events","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » OProfile » OProfile","id":"246","title":"OProfile"},"247":{"body":"Callgrind is a tracing profiler which records the function call history of a target program and collects the number of executed instructions. It is part of the valgrind tool suite. Profiling data is collected by instrumentation rather than sampling of the target program. Callgrind does not capture the actual time spent in a function but computes the inclusive & exclusive cost of a function based on the instructions fetched (Ir = Instruction read). This provides reproducibility and high-precision and is a major difference to sampling profilers like perf or vtune. Therefore effects like slow IO are not reflected, which should be kept in mind when analyzing callgrind results. By default the profiler data is dumped when the target process is terminating, but callgrind_control allows for interactive control of callgrind. # Run a program under callgrind.\nvalgrind --tool=callgrind --  [] # Interactive control of callgrind.\ncallgrind_control [opts] opts: -b ............. show current backtrace -e ............. show current event counters -s ............. show current stats --dump[=file] .. dump current collection -i=on|off ...... turn instrumentation on|off Results can be analyzed by using one of the following tools callgrind_annotate (cli) # Show only specific trace events (default is all).\ncallgrind_annotate --show=Ir,Dr,Dw [callgrind_out_file] kcachegrind (ui) The following is a collection of frequently used callgrind options. valgrind --tool=callgrind [opts] --  opts: --callgrind-out-file= .... output file, rather than callgrind.out. --dump-instr= .......... annotation on instrucion level, allows for asm annotations --instr-atstart= ....... control if instrumentation is enabled from beginning of the program --separate-threads= .... create separate output files per thread, appends - to the output file --cache-sim= ........... control if cache simulation is enabled","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » callgrind » callgrind","id":"247","title":"callgrind"},"248":{"body":"By default callgrind collects following events: Ir: Instruction read Callgrind also provides a functional cache simulation with their own model, which is enabled by passing --cache-sim=yes. This simulates a 2-level cache hierarchy with separate L1 instruction and data caches (L1i/ L1d) and a unified last level (LL) cache. When enabled, this collects the following additional events: I1mr: L1 cache miss on instruction read ILmr: LL cache miss on instruction read Dr: Data reads access D1mr: L1 cache miss on data read DLmr: LL cache miss on data read Dw: Data write access D1mw: L1 cache miss on data write DLmw: LL cache miss on data write","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » callgrind » Trace events","id":"248","title":"Trace events"},"249":{"body":"Programmatically enable/disable instrumentation using the macros defined in the callgrind header. #include  int main() { // init .. CALLGRIND_START_INSTRUMENTATION; compute(); CALLGRIND_STOP_INSTRUMENTATION; // shutdown ..\n} In this case, callgrind should be launched with --instr-atstart=no. Alternatively instrumentation can be controlled with callgrind_control -i on/off. The files cg_example.cc and Makefile provide a full example.","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » callgrind » Profile specific part of the target","id":"249","title":"Profile specific part of the target"},"25":{"body":"j>&i Duplicate fd i to fd j, making j a copy of i. See dup2(2) . Example: command 2>&1 >file duplicate fd 1 to fd 2, effectively redirecting stderr to stdout redirect stdout to file","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Explanation","id":"25","title":"Explanation"},"250":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » valgrind » valgrind(1)","id":"250","title":"valgrind(1)"},"251":{"body":"Is the default tool when invoking valgrind without explicitly specifying --tool. Memory checker used to identify: memory leaks out of bound accesses uninitialized reads valgrind [OPTIONS] PROGRAM [ARGS] --log-file=FILE Write valgrind output to FILE. --leak-check=full Enable full leak check. --track-origins=yes Show origins of undefined values. --keep-debuginfo=no|yes Keep symbols etc for unloaded code. --gen-suppressions=yes Generate suppressions file from the run. --suppressions=FILE Load suppressions file.","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » valgrind » Memcheck --tool=memcheck","id":"251","title":"Memcheck --tool=memcheck"},"252":{"body":"Vtune offers different analysis. Run vtune -collect help to list the availale analysis.","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » vtune » vtune(1)","id":"252","title":"vtune(1)"},"253":{"body":"The following shows some common flows with the hotspot analsysis as an example. # Launch and profile process.\nvtune -collect hotspots [opts] -- target [args] # Attach and profile running process.\nvtune -collect hotspots [opts] -target-pid  Some common options are the following. -r 
 output directory for the profile\n-no-follow-child dont attach to to child processes (default is to follow)\n-start-paused start with paused profiling","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » vtune » Profiling","id":"253","title":"Profiling"},"254":{"body":"vtune-gui ","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » vtune » Analyze","id":"254","title":"Analyze"},"255":{"body":"Vtune offers an API to resume and pause the profile collection from within the profilee itself. This can be helpful if either only a certain phase should be profiled or some phase should be skipped. The following gives an example where only one phase in the program is profiled. The program makes calls to the vtune API to resume and pause the collection, while vtune is invoked with -start-paused to pause profiling initially. #include  void init();\nvoid compute();\nvoid shutdown(); int main() { init(); __itt_resume(); compute(); __itt_pause(); shutdown(); return 0;\n} The makefile gives an example how to build and profile the application. VTUNE ?= /opt/intel/oneapi/vtune/latest main: main.c gcc -o $@ $^ -I$(VTUNE)/include -L$(VTUNE)/lib64 -littnotify vtune: main $(VTUNE)/bin64/vtune -collect hotspots -start-paused -- ./main","breadcrumbs":"Trace and Profile » vtune » Programmatically control sampling","id":"255","title":"Programmatically control sampling"},"256":{"body":"gdb gdbserver","breadcrumbs":"Debug » Debug","id":"256","title":"Debug"},"257":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » gdb(1)","id":"257","title":"gdb(1)"},"258":{"body":"gdb [opts] [prg [-c coredump | -p pid]] gdb [opts] --args prg  opts: -p  attach to pid -c  use  -x  execute script  before prompt -ex  execute command  before prompt --tty  set I/O tty for debugee --batch run in batch mode, exit after processing options (eg used for scripting) --batch-silent link --batch, but surpress gdb stdout","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » CLI","id":"258","title":"CLI"},"259":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Interactive usage","id":"259","title":"Interactive usage"},"26":{"body":"Process substitution allows to redirect the stdout of multiple processes at once. vim -d <(grep foo bar) <(grep foo moose)","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Process substitution ( ref )","id":"26","title":"Process substitution ( ref )"},"260":{"body":"apropos  Search commands matching regex. tty  Set  as tty for debugee. Make sure nobody reads from target tty, easiest is to spawn a shell and run following in target tty: > while true; do sleep 1024; done sharedlibrary [] Load symbols of shared libs loaded by debugee. Optionally use  to filter libs for symbol loading. display [/FMT]  Print  every time debugee stops. Eg print next instr, see examples below. undisplay [] Delete display expressions either all or one referenced by . info display List display expressions. info sharedlibrary [] List shared libraries loaded. Optionally use  to filter.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Misc","id":"260","title":"Misc"},"261":{"body":"break [-qualified]  thread  Set a breakpoint only for a specific thread. -qualified: Treat  as fully qualified symbol (quiet handy to set breakpoints on C symbols in C++ contexts) break  if  Set conditional breakpoint (see examples below). delete [] Delete breakpoint either all or one referenced by . info break List breakpoints. cond   Make existing breakpoint  conditional with . cond  Remove condition from breakpoint . tbreak Set temporary breakpoint, will be deleted when hit. Same syntax as `break`. rbreak  Set breakpoints matching , where matching internally is done on: .*.* command [] Define commands to run after breakpoint hit. If  is not specified attach command to last created breakpoint. Command block terminated with 'end' token. : Space separates list, eg 'command 2 5-8' to run command for breakpoints: 2,5,6,7,8. save break  Save breakpoints to . Can be loaded with the `source` command.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Breakpoints","id":"261","title":"Breakpoints"},"262":{"body":"watch [-location|-l]  [thread ] Create a watchpoint for , will break if  is written to. Watchpoints respect scope of variables, -l can be used to watch the memory location instead. rwatch ... Sets a read watchpoint, will break if  is read from. awatch ... Sets an access watchpoint, will break if  is written to or read from.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Watchpoints","id":"262","title":"Watchpoints"},"263":{"body":"catch load [] Stop when shared libraries are loaded, optionally specify a  to stop only on matches. catch unload [] Stop when shared libraries are unloaded, optionally specify a  to stop only on matches. catch throw Stop when an exception is thrown. catch rethrow Stop when an exception is rethrown. catch catch Stop when an exception is caught. catch fork Stop at calls to fork (also stops at clones, as some systems implement fork via clone). catch syscall [  ..] Stop at syscall. If no argument is given, stop at all syscalls. Optionally give a list of syscalls to stop at.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Catchpoints","id":"263","title":"Catchpoints"},"264":{"body":"info functions [] List functions matching . List all functions if no  provided. info variables [] List variables matching . List all variables if no  provided. info register [  ..] Dump content of all registers or only the specified ister.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Inspection","id":"264","title":"Inspection"},"265":{"body":"info handle [] Print how to handle . If no  specified print for all signals. handle   Configure how gdb handles  sent to debugee. : stop/nostop Catch signal in gdb and break. print/noprint Print message when gdb catches signal. pass/nopass Pass signal down to debugee. catch signal  Create a catchpoint for .","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Signal handling","id":"265","title":"Signal handling"},"266":{"body":"info thread List all threads. thread apply  []  Run command on all threads listed by  (space separated list). When 'all' is specified as  the  is run on all threads. thread name  The  for the current thread.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Multi-threading","id":"266","title":"Multi-threading"},"267":{"body":"set follow-fork-mode  Specify which process to follow when debuggee makes a fork(2) syscall. set detach-on-fork  Turn on/off detaching from new child processes (on by default). Turning this off allows to debug multiple processes (inferiors) with one gdb session. info inferiors List all processes gdb debugs. inferior  Switch to inferior with .","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Multi-process","id":"267","title":"Multi-process"},"268":{"body":"set schedule-multiple  on: Resume all threads of all processes (inferiors) when continuing or stepping. off: (default) Resume only threads of current process (inferior).","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Scheduling","id":"268","title":"Scheduling"},"269":{"body":"shell  Run the shell_cmd and print the output, can also contain a pipeline. pipe  |  Evaluate the gdb_cmd and run the shell_cmd which receives the output of the gdb_cmd via stdin.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Shell commands","id":"269","title":"Shell commands"},"27":{"body":"Execute commands in a group with or without subshell. Can be used to easily redirect stdout/stderr of all commands in the group into one file. # Group commands without subshell.\nv=abc ; { v=foo; echo $v; } ; echo $v\n# foo\n# foo # Group commands with subshell.\nv=abc ; ( v=foo; echo $v; ) ; echo $v\n# foo\n# abc","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Command grouping","id":"27","title":"Command grouping"},"270":{"body":"dir  Add  to the beginning of the searh path for source files. show dir Show current search path. set substitute-path   Add substitution rule checked during source file lookup. show substitute-path Show current substitution rules.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Source file locations","id":"270","title":"Source file locations"},"271":{"body":"set disassembly-flavor  Set the disassembly style \"flavor\". set pagination  Turn on/off gdb's pagination. set breakpoint pending  on: always set pending breakpoints. off: error when trying to set pending breakpoints. auto: interatively query user to set breakpoint. set print pretty  Turn on/off pertty printing of structures. set style enabled  Turn on/off styling (eg colored output). set logging  Enable output logging to file (default gdb.txt). set logging file  Change output log file to  set logging redirect  on: only log to file. off: log to file and tty. set logging overwrite  on: Truncate log file on each run. off: Append to logfile (default). set trace-commands  on: Echo comamands executed (good with logging). off: Do not echo commands executedt (default). set history filename  Change file where to save and restore command history to and from. set history  Enable or disable saving of command history. set exec-wrapper  Set an exec wrapper which sets up the env and execs the debugee. Logging options should be configured before logging is turned on.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Configuration","id":"271","title":"Configuration"},"272":{"body":"C-x a Toggle UI. C-l Redraw UI (curses UI can be messed up after the debugee prints to stdout/stderr). C-x o Change focus.","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Text user interface (TUI)","id":"272","title":"Text user interface (TUI)"},"273":{"body":"Gdb allows to create & document user commands as follows: define  # cmds end document  # docu end To get all user commands or documentations one can use: help user-defined help ","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » User commands (macros)","id":"273","title":"User commands (macros)"},"274":{"body":"Gdb allows to create two types of command hooks hook- will be run before  hookpost- will be run after  define hook- # cmds end define hookpost- # cmds end","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Hooks","id":"274","title":"Hooks"},"275":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Examples","id":"275","title":"Examples"},"276":{"body":"When ever the debugee stops automatically print the memory at the current instruction pointer ($rip x86) and format as instruction /i. # rip - x86 display /i $rip # step instruction, after the step the next instruction is automatically printed si","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Automatically print next instr","id":"276","title":"Automatically print next instr"},"277":{"body":"Create conditional breakpoints for a function void foo(int i) in the debugee. # Create conditional breakpoint b foo if i == 42 b foo # would create bp 2 # Make existing breakpoint conditional cond 2 i == 7","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Conditional breakpoints","id":"277","title":"Conditional breakpoints"},"278":{"body":"Create conditional breakpoint using the $_thread convenience variable . # Create conditional breakpoint on all threads except thread 12. b foo if $_thread != 12","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Set breakpoint on all threads except one","id":"278","title":"Set breakpoint on all threads except one"},"279":{"body":"This creates a catchpoint for the SIGSEGV signal and attached the command to it. catch signal SIGSEGV command bt c end","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Catch SIGSEGV and execute commands","id":"279","title":"Catch SIGSEGV and execute commands"},"28":{"body":"trap \"\" /EXIT # Show current trap handler.\ntrap -p\n# List signal names.\ntrap -l Example: Run handler only on error exit trap 'test $? -ne 0 && echo \"run exit trap\"' EXIT # -> no print\nexit 0\n# -> print\nexit 1 Example: Mutex in shell script For example if a script is triggered in unsynchronized, we may want to ensure that a single script instance runs. # open file=LOCK with fd=100\nexec 100>LOCK\n# take exclusive lock, wait maximal for 3600s\nflock -w 3600 -x 100 || { echo \"flock timeout\"; exit 1; } # eg automatically release lock when script exits\ntrap \"flock -u 100\" EXIT","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Trap Handling","id":"28","title":"Trap Handling"},"280":{"body":"gdb --batch -ex 'thread 1' -ex 'bt' -p ","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Run backtrace on thread 1 (batch mode)","id":"280","title":"Run backtrace on thread 1 (batch mode)"},"281":{"body":"To script gdb add commands into a file and pass it to gdb via -x. For example create run.gdb: set pagination off break mmap command info reg rdi rsi rdx bt c end #initial drop c This script can be used as: gdb --batch -x ./run.gdb -p ","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Script gdb for automating debugging sessions","id":"281","title":"Script gdb for automating debugging sessions"},"282":{"body":"define break-save save breakpoint $arg0.gdb.bp\nend\ndefine break-load source $arg0.gdb.bp\nend define hook-quit break-save quit\nend","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Hook to automatically save breakpoints on quit","id":"282","title":"Hook to automatically save breakpoints on quit"},"283":{"body":"A symbolic watchpoint defined on a member variable for debugging is only valid as long as the expression is in scope. Once out of scope the watchpoint gets deleted. When debugging some memory corruption we want to keep the watchpoint even the expression goes out of scope to find the location that overrides the variable and introduces the corruption. (gdb) l\n1 struct S { int v; };\n2\n3 void set(struct S* s, int v) {\n4 s->v = v;\n5 }\n6\n7 int main() {\n8 struct S s;\n9 set(&s, 1);\n10 set(&s, 2);\n11 set(&s, 3);\n... (gdb) s\nset (s=0x7fffffffe594, v=1) at test.c:4\n4 s->v = v; # Define a new watchpoint on the member of the struct. The expression however\n# is only valid in the current functions scope. (gdb) watch s->v\nHardware watchpoint 2: s->v (gdb) c\nHardware watchpoint 2: s->v\nOld value = 0\nNew value = 1\nset (s=0x7fffffffe594, v=1) at test.c:5\n5 } # The watchpoint gets deleted as soon as we leave the function scope. (gdb) c\nWatchpoint 2 deleted because the program has left the block in\nwhich its expression is valid.\nmain () at test.c:10\n10 set(&s, 2); # Define the watchpoint on the location of the object to watch. (gdb) watch -l s->v # This is equivalent to the following. (gdb) p &s->v\n$1 = (int *) 0x7fffffffe594 # Define a watchpoint to the address of the member variable of the s instance.\n# This of course only makes sense as long as the s instance is not moved in memory. (gdb) watch *0x7fffffffe594\nHardware watchpoint 3: *0x7fffffffe594 (gdb) c\nHardware watchpoint 3: *0x7fffffffe594\nOld value = 1\nNew value = 2\nset (s=0x7fffffffe594, v=2) at test.c:5\n5 } (gdb) c\nHardware watchpoint 3: *0x7fffffffe594\nOld value = 2\nNew value = 3\nset (s=0x7fffffffe594, v=3) at test.c:5\n5 }","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Watchpoint on struct / class member","id":"283","title":"Watchpoint on struct / class member"},"284":{"body":"# Run shell commands. (gdb) shell zcat /proc/config.gz | grep CONFIG_KVM=\nCONFIG_KVM=m # Pipe gdb command to shell command. (gdb) pipe info proc mapping | grep libc 0x7ffff7a1a000 0x7ffff7a42000 0x28000 0x0 r--p /usr/lib/libc.so.6 0x7ffff7a42000 0x7ffff7b9d000 0x15b000 0x28000 r-xp /usr/lib/libc.so.6 0x7ffff7b9d000 0x7ffff7bf2000 0x55000 0x183000 r--p /usr/lib/libc.so.6 0x7ffff7bf2000 0x7ffff7bf6000 0x4000 0x1d7000 r--p /usr/lib/libc.so.6 0x7ffff7bf6000 0x7ffff7bf8000 0x2000 0x1db000 rw-p /usr/lib/libc.so.6","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Shell commands","id":"284","title":"Shell commands"},"285":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Know Bugs","id":"285","title":"Know Bugs"},"286":{"body":"When using finish inside a command block, commands after finish are not executed. To workaround that bug one can create a wrapper function which calls finish. define handler bt finish info reg rax end command handler end","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Workaround command + finish bug","id":"286","title":"Workaround command + finish bug"},"287":{"body":"> cat test.c\n#include \n#include  int main() { const char* env = getenv(\"MOOSE\"); printf(\"$MOOSE=%s\\n\", env ? env : \"\");\n} > cat test.sh\n#!/bin/bash echo \"running test.sh wapper\"\nexport MOOSE=moose\nexec ./test > gcc -g -o test test.c > gdb test\n(gdb) r\n$MOOSE= (gdb) set exec-wrapper bash test.sh\n(gdb) r\nrunning test.sh wapper\n$MOOSE=moose","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdb » Launch debuggee through an exec wrapper","id":"287","title":"Launch debuggee through an exec wrapper"},"288":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdbserver » gdbserver(1)","id":"288","title":"gdbserver(1)"},"289":{"body":"gdbserver [opts] comm prog [args] opts: --disable-randomization --no-disable-randomization --wrapper W -- comm: host:port tty","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdbserver » CLI","id":"289","title":"CLI"},"29":{"body":"The getopts builtin uses following global variables: OPTARG, value of last option argument OPTIND, index of the next argument to process (user must reset) OPTERR, display errors if set to 1 getopts   []  specifies the names of supported options, eg f:c f: means -f option with an argument c means -c option without an argument  specifies a variable name which getopts fills with the last parsed option argument  optionally specify argument string to parse, by default getopts parses $@","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Argument parsing with getopts","id":"29","title":"Argument parsing with getopts"},"290":{"body":"# Start gdbserver.\ngdbserver localhost:1234 /bin/ls # Attach gdb.\ngdb -ex 'target remote localhost:1234'","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdbserver » Example","id":"290","title":"Example"},"291":{"body":"Set env as execution wrapper with some variables. The wrapper will be executed before the debugee. gdbserver --wrapper env FOO=123 BAR=321 -- :12345 /bin/ls","breadcrumbs":"Debug » gdbserver » Wrapper example: Set environment variables just for the debugee","id":"291","title":"Wrapper example: Set environment variables just for the debugee"},"292":{"body":"od xxd readelf objdump nm","breadcrumbs":"Binary » Binary","id":"292","title":"Binary"},"293":{"body":"od [opts]  -An don't print addr info -tx4 print hex in 4 byte chunks -ta print as named character -tc printable chars or backslash escape -w4 print 4 bytes per line -j  skip  bytes from  (hex if start with 0x) -N  dump  bytes (hex of start with 0x)","breadcrumbs":"Binary » od » od(1)","id":"293","title":"od(1)"},"294":{"body":"echo -n AAAABBBB | od -An -w4 -tx4 >> 41414141 >> 42424242 echo -n '\\x7fELF\\n' | od -tx1 -ta -tc >> 0000000 7f 45 4c 46 0a # tx1 >> del E L F nl # ta >> 177 E L F \\n # tc","breadcrumbs":"Binary » od » ASCII to hex string","id":"294","title":"ASCII to hex string"},"295":{"body":"For example .rodata section from an elf file. We can use readelf to get the offset into the file where the .rodata section starts. readelf -W -S foo >> Section Headers: >> [Nr] Name Type Address Off Size ES Flg Lk Inf Al >> ... >> [15] .rodata PROGBITS 00000000004009c0 0009c0 000030 00 A 0 0 16 With the offset of -j 0x0009c0 we can dump -N 0x30 bytes from the beginning of the .rodata section as follows: od -j 0x0009c0 -N 0x30 -tx4 -w4 foo >> 0004700 00020001 >> 0004704 00000000 >> * >> 0004740 00000001 >> 0004744 00000002 >> 0004750 00000003 >> 0004754 00000004 Note : Numbers starting with 0x will be interpreted as hex by od.","breadcrumbs":"Binary » od » Extract parts of file","id":"295","title":"Extract parts of file"},"296":{"body":"xxd [opts] -p dump continuous hexdump -r convert hexdump into binary ('revert') -e dump as little endian mode -i output as C array","breadcrumbs":"Binary » xxd » xxd(1)","id":"296","title":"xxd(1)"},"297":{"body":"echo -n 'aabb' | xxd -p >> 61616262","breadcrumbs":"Binary » xxd » ASCII to hex stream","id":"297","title":"ASCII to hex stream"},"298":{"body":"echo -n '61616262' | xxd -p -r >> aabb","breadcrumbs":"Binary » xxd » Hex to binary stream","id":"298","title":"Hex to binary stream"},"299":{"body":"echo -n '\\x7fELF' | xxd -p | xxd -p -r | file -p - >> ELF","breadcrumbs":"Binary » xxd » ASCII to binary","id":"299","title":"ASCII to binary"},"3":{"body":"Change input mode: bindkey -v change to vi keymap\nbindkey -e change to emacs keymap Define key-mappings: bindkey list mappings in current keymap\nbindkey in-str cmd create mapping for `in-str` to `cmd`\nbindkey -r in-str remove binding for `in-str` # C-v  dump  code, which can be used in `in-str`\n# zle -l list all functions for keybindings\n# man zshzle(1) STANDARD WIDGETS: get description of functions Access edit buffer in zle widget: $BUFFER # Entire edit buffer content\n$LBUFFER # Edit buffer content left to cursor\n$RBUFFER # Edit buffer content right to cursor # create zle widget which adds text right of the cursor\nfunction add-text() { RBUFFER=\"some text $RBUFFER\"\n}\nzle -N add-text bindkey \"^p\" add-text","breadcrumbs":"Shells » zsh » Keybindings","id":"3","title":"Keybindings"},"30":{"body":"#!/bin/bash\nfunction parse_args() { while getopts \"f:c\" PARAM; do case $PARAM in f) echo \"GOT -f $OPTARG\";; c) echo \"GOT -c\";; *) echo \"ERR: print usage\"; exit 1;; esac done # users responsibility to reset OPTIND OPTIND=1\n} parse_args -f xxx -c\nparse_args -f yyy","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Example","id":"30","title":"Example"},"300":{"body":"xxd -i <(echo -n '\\x7fELF') >> unsigned char _proc_self_fd_11[] = { >> 0x7f, 0x45, 0x4c, 0x46 >> }; >> unsigned int _proc_self_fd_11_len = 4;","breadcrumbs":"Binary » xxd » ASCII to C array (hex encoded)","id":"300","title":"ASCII to C array (hex encoded)"},"301":{"body":"readelf [opts]  -W|--wide wide output, dont break output at 80 chars -h print ELF header -S print section headers -l print program headers + segment mapping -d print .dynamic section (dynamic link information) --syms print symbol tables (.symtab .dynsym) --dyn-syms print dynamic symbol table (exported symbols for dynamic linker) -r print relocation sections (.rel.*, .rela.*)","breadcrumbs":"Binary » readelf » readelf(1)","id":"301","title":"readelf(1)"},"302":{"body":"objdump [opts]  -M intel use intil syntax -d disassemble text section -D disassemble all sections --disassemble= disassemble symbol  -S mix disassembly with source code -C demangle -j  display info for section --[no-]show-raw-insn [dont] show object code next to disassembly --visualize-jumps[=color] visualize jumps with ascii art, optionally color arrows","breadcrumbs":"Binary » objdump » objdump(1)","id":"302","title":"objdump(1)"},"303":{"body":"For example .plt section: objdump -j .plt -d ","breadcrumbs":"Binary » objdump » Disassemble section","id":"303","title":"Disassemble section"},"304":{"body":"This can be helpful for example as a cheap analysis tool when toying with JIT generating code. We could just write thee binary code buffer to a file and disassemble with objdump. To re-create that case, we just assemble and link some ELF file and then create a raw binary of the text section with objcopy. # file: test.s\n.section .text, \"ax\" .global _start\n_start: xor %rax, %rax mov $0x8, %rax\n1: cmp $0, %rax je 2f dec %rax jmp 1b\n2: # x86-64 exit(2) syscall mov $0, %rdi mov $60, %rax syscall # Assemble & link.\nas -o test.o test.s\nld -o test test.o testc.o\n# ELF -> binary (only take .text section).\nobjcopy -O binary --only-section .text test test-bin # Disassemble raw binary.\nobjdump -D -b binary -m i386:x86-64 test-bin","breadcrumbs":"Binary » objdump » Example: disassemble raw binary","id":"304","title":"Example: disassemble raw binary"},"305":{"body":"# Disassemble main().\nobjdump --disassemble=main \n# Disassemble 'foo::bar()' (mangled).\nobjdump --disassemble=_ZN3foo3barEvr  # Disassemble 'foo::bar()' (demangled), requires -C\nobjdump -C --disassemble=foo::bar ","breadcrumbs":"Binary » objdump » Example: disassemble specific symbol","id":"305","title":"Example: disassemble specific symbol"},"306":{"body":"nm [opts]  -C demangle -u undefined only","breadcrumbs":"Binary » nm » nm(1)","id":"306","title":"nm(1)"},"307":{"body":"c++filt c++ glibc gcc git cmake make ld.so symbol versioning python gcov pgo","breadcrumbs":"Development » Development","id":"307","title":"Development"},"308":{"body":"","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++filt » c++filt(1)","id":"308","title":"c++filt(1)"},"309":{"body":"c++-filt [opts]  -t Try to also demangle types.","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++filt » Demangle symbol","id":"309","title":"Demangle symbol"},"31":{"body":"Bash supports regular expression matching with the binary operator =~. The match results can be accessed via the $BASH_REMATCH variable: ${BASH_REMATCH[0]} contains the full match ${BASH_REMATCH[1]} contains match of the first capture group INPUT='title foo : 1234'\nREGEX='^title (.+) : ([0-9]+)$'\nif [[ $INPUT =~ $REGEX ]]; then echo \"${BASH_REMATCH[0]}\" # title foo : 1234 echo \"${BASH_REMATCH[1]}\" # foo echo \"${BASH_REMATCH[2]}\" # 1234\nfi Caution : When specifying a regex in the [[ ]] block directly, quotes will be treated as part of the pattern. [[ $INPUT =~ \"foo\" ]] will match against \"foo\" not foo!","breadcrumbs":"Shells » bash » Regular Expressions","id":"31","title":"Regular Expressions"},"310":{"body":"For example dynamic symbol table: readelf -W --dyn-syms  | c++filt","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++filt » Demangle stream","id":"310","title":"Demangle stream"},"311":{"body":"// file: type.cc\n#include \n#include  #define P(ty) printf(#ty \" -> %s\\n\", typeid(ty).name()) template \nstruct Foo {}; int main() { P(int); P(unsigned char); P(Foo<>); P(Foo);\n} Build and run: $ clang++ type.cc && ./a.out | c++filt\nint -> i\nunsigned char -> h\nFoo<> -> 3FooIvE\nFoo -> 3FooIiE $ clang++ type.cc && ./a.out | c++filt -t\nint -> int\nunsigned char -> unsigned char\nFoo<> -> Foo\nFoo -> Foo","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++filt » Demangle types","id":"311","title":"Demangle types"},"312":{"body":"openstd cpp standards . Source files of most examples is available here .","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » c++","id":"312","title":"c++"},"313":{"body":"Force compile error to see what auto is deduced to. auto foo = bar(); // force compile error\ntypename decltype(foo)::_;","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » Type deduction","id":"313","title":"Type deduction"},"314":{"body":"The strict aliasing rules describe via which alias a value can be accessed. Informal: an alias is a reference / pointer to a value. Accessing a value through an alias that violates the strict aliasing rules is undefined behavior (UB). Examples below on godbolt . int i = 0; // Valid aliasing (signed / unsigned type).\n*reinterpret_cast(&i);\n*reinterpret_cast(&i); // Valid aliasing (cv qualified type).\n*reinterpret_cast(&i);\n*reinterpret_cast(&i); // Valid aliasing (byte type).\n*reinterpret_cast(&i);\n*reinterpret_cast(&i); // Invalid aliasing, dereferencing pointer is UB.\n*reinterpret_cast(&i);\n*reinterpret_cast(&i); NOTE: Casting pointer to invalid aliasing type is not directly UB, but dereferencing the pointer is UB. short s[2] = { 1, 2 }; // Invalid aliasing (UB) - type punning, UB to deref ptr (int has stricter\n// alignment requirements than short).\n*reinterpret_cast(s); // Arbitrary byte pointer.\nchar c[4] = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }; // Invalid aliasing (UB) - type punning, UB to deref ptr (int has stricter\n// alignment requirements than char).\n*reinterpret_cast(c); At the time of writing, the current c++ std draft contains the following. If a program attempts to access the stored value of an object through a glvalue\nwhose type is not **similar** (7.3.6) to one of the following types the\nbehavior is undefined [44] (11.1) the dynamic type of the object,\n(11.2) a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the dynamic type of the object, or\n(11.3) a char, unsigned char, or std::byte type. [44]: The intent of this list is to specify those circumstances in which an object can or cannot be aliased. The paragraph is short but one also needs to understand the meaning of similar ( similar_types ) . This paragraph is actually somewhat more explicit in the c++17 std . If a program attempts to access the stored value of an object through a glvalue\nof other than one of the following types the behavior is undefined [63] (11.1) the dynamic type of the object,\n(11.2) a cv-qualiﬁed version of the dynamic type of the object,\n(11.3) a type similar (as deﬁned in 7.5) to the dynamic type of the object,\n(11.4) a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the dynamic type of the object,\n(11.5) a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to a cv-qualiﬁed version of the dynamic type of the object,\n(11.6) an aggregate or union type that includes one of the aforementioned types among its elements or non- static data members (including, recursively, an element or non-static data member of a subaggregate or contained union),\n(11.7) a type that is a (possibly cv-qualiﬁed) base class type of the dynamic type of the object,\n(11.8) a char, unsigned char, or std::byte type. [63]: The intent of this list is to specify those circumstances in which an object may or may not be aliased. Additional references: What is the Strict Aliasing Rule and Why do we care The article shows a small example how the compiler may optimized using the strict aliasing rules. int alias(int* i, char* c) { *i = 1; *c = 'a'; // char* may alias int* return *i;\n} int noalias(int* i, short* s) { *i = 1; *s = 2; // short* does not alias int* return *i;\n} alias(int*, char*):\nmov DWORD PTR [rdi] ,0x1 ; *i = 1;\nmov BYTE PTR [rsi], 0x61 ; *c = 'a';\nmov eax,DWORD PTR [rdi] ; Must reload, char* can alias int*.\nret noalias(int*, short*):\nmov DWORD PTR [rdi], 0x1 ; *i = 1;\nmov WORD PTR [rsi], 0x2 ; *s = 2;\nmov eax,0x1 ; Must not reload, short* can not alias int*.\nret reinterpret_cast type aliasing Any object pointer type T1* can be converted to another object pointer type cv T2*. This is exactly equivalent to static_cast(static_cast(expression)) (which implies that if T2's alignment requirement is not stricter than T1's, the value of the pointer does not change and conversion of the resulting pointer back to its original type yields the original value). In any case, the resulting pointer may only be dereferenced safely if allowed by the type aliasing rules (see below). int I;\nchar* X = reinterpret_cast(&I); // Valid, char allowed to alias int.\n*X = 42;\nint* Y = reinterpret_cast(X); // Cast back to original type.\n*Y = 1337; // safe char C[4];\nint* P = reinterpret_cast(C); // Cast is ok, not yet UB.\n*P = 1337; // UB, violates strict aliasing / alignment rules. // https://stackoverflow.com/questions/52492229/c-byte-array-to-int On gcc strict aliasing is enabled starting with -O2. for i in {0..3} g s; do echo \"-O$i $(g++ -Q --help=optimizers -O$i | grep fstrict-aliasing)\"; done\n-O0 -fstrict-aliasing [disabled]\n-O1 -fstrict-aliasing [disabled]\n-O2 -fstrict-aliasing [enabled]\n-O3 -fstrict-aliasing [enabled]\n-Og -fstrict-aliasing [disabled]\n-Os -fstrict-aliasing [enabled]","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » Strict aliasing and type punning","id":"314","title":"Strict aliasing and type punning"},"315":{"body":"The __restrict keyword allows the programmer to tell the compiler that two pointer will not alias each other. int alias(int* a, int* b) { *a = 1; *b = 2; return *a;\n} // alias(int*, int*): # @alias(int*, int*)\n// mov dword ptr [rdi], 1\n// mov dword ptr [rsi], 2\n// mov eax, dword ptr [rdi]\n// ret int noalias(int* __restrict a, int* __restrict b) { *a = 1; *b = 2; return *a;\n} // noalias(int*, int*): # @noalias(int*, int*)\n// mov dword ptr [rdi], 1\n// mov dword ptr [rsi], 2\n// mov eax, 1\n// ret However this should only be used with care and in a narrow scope, as it is easy to violate self defined contract, see godbolt .","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » __restrict keyword","id":"315","title":"__restrict keyword"},"316":{"body":"The correct way to do type-punning in c++: std::bit_cast (c++20) std::memcpy","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » Type punning","id":"316","title":"Type punning"},"317":{"body":"#include  // -- Example 1 - print template value arguments. // Base case with one parameter.\ntemplate\nvoid show_int() { printf(\"%d\\n\", P);\n} // General case with at least two parameters, to disambiguate from base case.\ntemplate\nvoid show_int() { printf(\"%d, \", P0); show_int();\n} // -- Example 2 - print values of different types. // Base case with one parameter.\ntemplate\nvoid show(const T& t) { std::cout << t << '\\n';\n} // General case with at least two parameters, to disambiguate from base case.\ntemplate\nvoid show(const T0& t0, const T1& t1, const Types&... types) { std::cout << t0 << \", \"; show(t1, types...);\n} int main() { show_int<1, 2, 3, 4, 5>(); show(1, 1.0, \"foo\", 'a');\n}","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » Variadic templates ( parameter pack )","id":"317","title":"Variadic templates ( parameter pack )"},"318":{"body":"A forwarding reference is a special references that preserves the value category of a function parameter and therefore allows for perfect forwarding. A forwarding reference is a parameter of a function template, which is declared as rvalue reference to a non-cv qualified type template parameter. template\nvoid fn(T&& param); // param is a forwarding reference Perfect forwarding can be achieved with std::forward . This for example allows a wrapper function to pass a parameter with the exact same value category to a down-stream function which is being invoked in the wrapper. #include \n#include  struct M {}; // -- CONSUMER ----------------------------------------------------------------- void use(M&) { puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__);\n} void use(M&&) { puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__);\n} // -- TESTER ------------------------------------------------------------------- template\nvoid wrapper(T&& param) { // forwarding reference puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__); // PARAM is an lvalue, therefore this always calls use(M&). use(param);\n} template\nvoid fwd_wrapper(T&& param) { // forwarding reference puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__); // PARAM is an lvalue, but std::forward returns PARAM with the same value // category as the forwarding reference takes. use(std::forward(param));\n} // -- MAIN --------------------------------------------------------------------- int main() { { std::puts(\"==> wrapper rvalue reference\"); wrapper(M{}); // calls use(M&). std::puts(\"==> wrapper lvalue reference\"); struct M m; wrapper(m); // calls use(M&). } { std::puts(\"==> fwd_wrapper rvalue reference\"); fwd_wrapper(M{}); // calls use(M&&). std::puts(\"==> fwd_wrapper lvalue reference\"); struct M m; fwd_wrapper(m); // calls use(M&). }\n}","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » Forwarding reference ( fwd ref )","id":"318","title":"Forwarding reference ( fwd ref )"},"319":{"body":"#include  template\nstruct any_of : std::false_type {}; // Found our type T in the list of types U.\ntemplate\nstruct any_of : std::true_type {}; // Pop off the first element in the list of types U,\n// since it didn't match our type T.\ntemplate\nstruct any_of : any_of {}; // Convenience template variable to invoke meta function.\ntemplate\nconstexpr bool any_of_v = any_of::value; static_assert(any_of_v, \"\");\nstatic_assert(!any_of_v, \"\");","breadcrumbs":"Development » c++ » Example: any_of template meta function","id":"319","title":"Example: any_of template meta function"},"32":{"body":"The complete builtin is used to interact with the completion system. complete # print currently installed completion handler\ncomplete -F   # install  as completion handler for \ncomplete -r  # uninstall completion handler for  Variables available in completion functions: # in\n$1 # \n$2 # current word\n$3 # privous word COMP_WORDS # array with current command line words\nCOMP_CWORD # index into COMP_WORDS with current cursor position # out\nCOMPREPLY # array with possible completions The compgen builtin is used to generate possible matches by comparing word against words generated by option. compgen