1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
|
<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en" class="sidebar-visible no-js light">
<head>
<!-- Book generated using mdBook -->
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>c++ - Notes</title>
<!-- Custom HTML head -->
<meta name="description" content="">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff" />
<link rel="icon" href="../favicon.svg">
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="../favicon.png">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../css/variables.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../css/general.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../css/chrome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../css/print.css" media="print">
<!-- Fonts -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../FontAwesome/css/font-awesome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../fonts/fonts.css">
<!-- Highlight.js Stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../highlight.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../tomorrow-night.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../ayu-highlight.css">
<!-- Custom theme stylesheets -->
</head>
<body>
<div id="body-container">
<!-- Provide site root to javascript -->
<script>
var path_to_root = "../";
var default_theme = window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: dark)").matches ? "navy" : "light";
</script>
<!-- Work around some values being stored in localStorage wrapped in quotes -->
<script>
try {
var theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme');
var sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar');
if (theme.startsWith('"') && theme.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-theme', theme.slice(1, theme.length - 1));
}
if (sidebar.startsWith('"') && sidebar.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-sidebar', sidebar.slice(1, sidebar.length - 1));
}
} catch (e) { }
</script>
<!-- Set the theme before any content is loaded, prevents flash -->
<script>
var theme;
try { theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme'); } catch(e) { }
if (theme === null || theme === undefined) { theme = default_theme; }
var html = document.querySelector('html');
html.classList.remove('no-js')
html.classList.remove('light')
html.classList.add(theme);
html.classList.add('js');
</script>
<!-- Hide / unhide sidebar before it is displayed -->
<script>
var html = document.querySelector('html');
var sidebar = null;
if (document.body.clientWidth >= 1080) {
try { sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar'); } catch(e) { }
sidebar = sidebar || 'visible';
} else {
sidebar = 'hidden';
}
html.classList.remove('sidebar-visible');
html.classList.add("sidebar-" + sidebar);
</script>
<nav id="sidebar" class="sidebar" aria-label="Table of contents">
<div class="sidebar-scrollbox">
<ol class="chapter"><li class="chapter-item expanded affix "><a href="../intro.html">Introduction</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Tools</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/zsh.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> zsh</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/bash.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> bash</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/fish.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> fish</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/tmux.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.4.</strong> tmux</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/git.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.5.</strong> git</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/awk.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.6.</strong> awk</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/emacs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.7.</strong> emacs</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/gpg.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.8.</strong> gpg</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/gdb.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.9.</strong> gdb</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/gdbserver.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.10.</strong> gdbserver</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/radare2.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.11.</strong> radare2</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/qemu.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.12.</strong> qemu</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/pacman.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.13.</strong> pacman</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../tools/dot.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.14.</strong> dot</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../monitor/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Resource analysis & monitor</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../monitor/lsof.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.1.</strong> lsof</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../monitor/ss.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.2.</strong> ss</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../monitor/pidstat.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.3.</strong> pidstat</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../monitor/pgrep.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.4.</strong> pgrep</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../monitor/pmap.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.5.</strong> pmap</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../monitor/pstack.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.6.</strong> pstack</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Trace and Profile</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/strace.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> strace</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/ltrace.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> ltrace</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/perf.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> perf</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/oprofile.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> OProfile</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../trace_profile/time.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> time</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Binary</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/od.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> od</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/xxd.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> xxd</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/readelf.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> readelf</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/objdump.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.4.</strong> objdump</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../binary/nm.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.5.</strong> nm</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Development</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/c++filt.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> c++filt</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/c++.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> c++</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/glibc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> glibc</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/gcc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.4.</strong> gcc</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/make.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.5.</strong> make</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/ld.so.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.6.</strong> ld.so</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/symbolver.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.7.</strong> symbol versioning</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/python.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.8.</strong> python</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../development/gcov.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.9.</strong> gcov</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Linux</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/systemd.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> systemd</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/coredump.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> coredump</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/ptrace_scope.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> ptrace_scope</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/cryptsetup.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.4.</strong> cryptsetup</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/swap.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.5.</strong> swap</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../linux/input.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.6.</strong> input</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Network</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/tcpdump.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> tcpdump</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/firewall-cmd.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> firewall-cmd</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../network/nftables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> nftables</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Web</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/html.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> html</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../web/chartjs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> chartjs</a></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/index.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Arch</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/x86_64.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> x86_64</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/arm64.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> arm64</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/armv7.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> armv7</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="../arch/riscv.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.4.</strong> riscv</a></li></ol></li></ol>
</div>
<div id="sidebar-resize-handle" class="sidebar-resize-handle"></div>
</nav>
<div id="page-wrapper" class="page-wrapper">
<div class="page">
<div id="menu-bar-hover-placeholder"></div>
<div id="menu-bar" class="menu-bar sticky bordered">
<div class="left-buttons">
<button id="sidebar-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-label="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-controls="sidebar">
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
<button id="theme-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Change theme" aria-label="Change theme" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="theme-list">
<i class="fa fa-paint-brush"></i>
</button>
<ul id="theme-list" class="theme-popup" aria-label="Themes" role="menu">
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="light">Light</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="rust">Rust</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="coal">Coal</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="navy">Navy</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="ayu">Ayu</button></li>
</ul>
<button id="search-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Search. (Shortkey: s)" aria-label="Toggle Searchbar" aria-expanded="false" aria-keyshortcuts="S" aria-controls="searchbar">
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<h1 class="menu-title">Notes</h1>
<div class="right-buttons">
<a href="../print.html" title="Print this book" aria-label="Print this book">
<i id="print-button" class="fa fa-print"></i>
</a>
<a href="https://github.com/johannst/notes" title="Git repository" aria-label="Git repository">
<i id="git-repository-button" class="fa fa-github"></i>
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div id="search-wrapper" class="hidden">
<form id="searchbar-outer" class="searchbar-outer">
<input type="search" id="searchbar" name="searchbar" placeholder="Search this book ..." aria-controls="searchresults-outer" aria-describedby="searchresults-header">
</form>
<div id="searchresults-outer" class="searchresults-outer hidden">
<div id="searchresults-header" class="searchresults-header"></div>
<ul id="searchresults">
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- Apply ARIA attributes after the sidebar and the sidebar toggle button are added to the DOM -->
<script>
document.getElementById('sidebar-toggle').setAttribute('aria-expanded', sidebar === 'visible');
document.getElementById('sidebar').setAttribute('aria-hidden', sidebar !== 'visible');
Array.from(document.querySelectorAll('#sidebar a')).forEach(function(link) {
link.setAttribute('tabIndex', sidebar === 'visible' ? 0 : -1);
});
</script>
<div id="content" class="content">
<main>
<h1 id="c"><a class="header" href="#c">c++</a></h1>
<p>Source files of most examples is available <a href="https://github.com/johannst/notes/tree/master/src/development/c%2B%2B">here</a>.</p>
<h2 id="type-deduction"><a class="header" href="#type-deduction">Type deduction</a></h2>
<p>Force compile error to see what <code>auto</code> is deduced to.</p>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">auto foo = bar();
// force compile error
typename decltype(foo)::_;
</code></pre>
<h2 id="variadic-templates-parameter-pack"><a class="header" href="#variadic-templates-parameter-pack">Variadic templates (<a href="https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/parameter_pack">parameter pack</a>)</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">#include <iostream>
// -- Example 1 - print template value arguments.
// Base case with one parameter.
template<int P>
void show_int() {
printf("%d\n", P);
}
// General case with at least two parameters, to disambiguate from base case.
template<int P0, int P1, int... Params>
void show_int() {
printf("%d, ", P0);
show_int<P1, Params...>();
}
// -- Example 2 - print values of different types.
// Base case with one parameter.
template<typename T>
void show(const T& t) {
std::cout << t << '\n';
}
// General case with at least two parameters, to disambiguate from base case.
template<typename T0, typename T1, typename... Types>
void show(const T0& t0, const T1& t1, const Types&... types) {
std::cout << t0 << ", ";
show(t1, types...);
}
int main() {
show_int<1, 2, 3, 4, 5>();
show(1, 1.0, "foo", 'a');
}
</code></pre>
<h2 id="forwarding-reference-fwd-ref"><a class="header" href="#forwarding-reference-fwd-ref">Forwarding reference (<a href="https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/reference#Forwarding_references">fwd ref</a>)</a></h2>
<p>A <code>forwarding reference</code> is a special references that preserves the <code>value category</code> of a function parameter and therefore allows for <code>perfect</code>
forwarding.</p>
<p>A forwarding reference is a parameter of a function template, which is declared
as <code>rvalue</code> reference to a <code>non-cv</code> qualified <code>type</code> template parameter.</p>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">template<typename T>
void fn(T&& param); // param is a forwarding reference
</code></pre>
<p>Perfect forwarding can be achieved with <a href="https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/forward"><code>std::forward</code></a>. This for
example allows a wrapper function to pass a parameter with the <strong>exact</strong> same
value category to a down-stream function which is being invoked in the wrapper.</p>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">#include <cstdio>
#include <utility>
struct M {};
// -- CONSUMER -----------------------------------------------------------------
void use(M&) {
puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__);
}
void use(M&&) {
puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__);
}
// -- TESTER -------------------------------------------------------------------
template<typename T>
void wrapper(T&& param) { // forwarding reference
puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__);
// PARAM is an lvalue, therefore this always calls use(M&).
use(param);
}
template<typename T>
void fwd_wrapper(T&& param) { // forwarding reference
puts(__PRETTY_FUNCTION__);
// PARAM is an lvalue, but std::forward returns PARAM with the same value
// category as the forwarding reference takes.
use(std::forward<T>(param));
}
// -- MAIN ---------------------------------------------------------------------
int main() {
{
std::puts("==> wrapper rvalue reference");
wrapper(M{});
// calls use(M&).
std::puts("==> wrapper lvalue reference");
struct M m;
wrapper(m);
// calls use(M&).
}
{
std::puts("==> fwd_wrapper rvalue reference");
fwd_wrapper(M{});
// calls use(M&&).
std::puts("==> fwd_wrapper lvalue reference");
struct M m;
fwd_wrapper(m);
// calls use(M&).
}
}
</code></pre>
<h2 id="example-any_of-template-meta-function"><a class="header" href="#example-any_of-template-meta-function">Example: <code>any_of</code> template meta function</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">#include <type_traits>
template<typename T, typename... U>
struct any_of : std::false_type {};
// Found our type T in the list of types U.
template<typename T, typename... U>
struct any_of<T, T, U...> : std::true_type {};
// Pop off the first element in the list of types U,
// since it didn't match our type T.
template<typename T, typename U0, typename... U>
struct any_of<T, U0, U...> : any_of<T, U...> {};
// Convenience template variable to invoke meta function.
template<typename T, typename... U>
constexpr bool any_of_v = any_of<T, U...>::value;
static_assert(any_of_v<int, char, bool, int>, "");
static_assert(!any_of_v<int, char, bool, float>, "");
</code></pre>
<h2 id="example-sfinae-enable_if"><a class="header" href="#example-sfinae-enable_if">Example: <a href="https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/sfinae">SFINAE</a> (<a href="https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/types/enable_if">enable_if</a>)</a></h2>
<p>Provide a single entry point <code>Invoke</code> to call some <code>Operations</code>.
Use <code>enable_if</code> to enable/disable the template functions depending on the two
available traits an operation can have:</p>
<ul>
<li>Operation returns a result</li>
<li>Operation requires a context</li>
</ul>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">#include <iostream>
#include <type_traits>
// Helper meta fns.
template<typename T>
using enable_if_bool = std::enable_if_t<T::value, bool>;
template<typename T>
using disable_if_bool = std::enable_if_t<!T::value, bool>;
template<typename T>
using has_dst = std::integral_constant<bool, !std::is_same<typename T::Return, void>::value>;
// Template meta programming invoke machinery.
namespace impl {
// Invoke an OPERATION which *USES* a context.
template<typename Ctx, template<typename> class Op, typename... P,
enable_if_bool<typename Op<Ctx>::HasCtx> = true>
typename Op<Ctx>::Return Invoke(const Ctx& C, P... params) {
return Op<Ctx>()(C, params...);
}
// Invoke an OPERATION which uses *NO* context.
template<typename Ctx, template<typename> class Op, typename... P,
disable_if_bool<typename Op<Ctx>::HasCtx> = true>
typename Op<Ctx>::Return Invoke(const Ctx&, P... params) {
return Op<Ctx>()(params...);
}
} // namespace impl
// Invoke an OPERATION which *HAS* a DESTINATION with arbitrary number of arguments.
template<typename Ctx, template<typename> class Op, typename... P,
enable_if_bool<has_dst<Op<Ctx>>> = true>
void Invoke(const Ctx& C, P... params) {
std::cout << "Invoke " << Op<Ctx>::Name << '\n';
typename Op<Ctx>::Return R = impl::Invoke<Ctx, Op>(C, params...);
std::cout << "returned -> " << R << '\n';
}
// Invoke an OPERATION which has *NOT* a DESTINATION with arbitrary number of arguments.
template<typename Ctx, template<typename> class Op, typename... P,
disable_if_bool<has_dst<Op<Ctx>>> = true>
void Invoke(const Ctx& C, P... params) {
std::cout << "Invoke " << Op<Ctx>::Name << " without destination." << '\n';
impl::Invoke<Ctx, Op>(C, params...);
}
// Custom context.
struct Ctx {
void out(const char* s, unsigned v) const {
printf("%s%x\n", s, v);
}
};
// Operations to invoke.
template<typename Ctx>
struct OpA {
using HasCtx = std::false_type;
using Return = int;
static constexpr const char* const Name = "OpA";
constexpr Return operator()(int a, int b) const {
return a + b;
}
};
template<typename Ctx>
struct OpB {
using HasCtx = std::true_type;
using Return = void;
static constexpr const char* const Name = "OpB";
Return operator()(const Ctx& C, unsigned a) const {
C.out("a = ", a);
}
};
int main() {
Ctx C;
Invoke<Ctx, OpA>(C, 1, 2);
Invoke<Ctx, OpB>(C, 0xf00du);
return 0;
}
</code></pre>
<h2 id="example-minimal-templatized-test-registry"><a class="header" href="#example-minimal-templatized-test-registry">Example: Minimal templatized test registry</a></h2>
<p>A small test function registry bringing together a few different template
features.</p>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">#include <cstdio>
#include <functional>
#include <map>
#include <string>
#include <type_traits>
template<typename R, typename... P>
struct registry {
using FUNC = R (*)(P...);
using SELF = registry<R, P...>;
using RET = R;
static SELF& get() {
static SELF r;
return r;
}
bool add(std::string nm, FUNC fn) {
const auto r = m_fns.insert({std::move(nm), std::move(fn)});
return r.second;
}
R invoke(const std::string& nm, P... p) const {
return invoke_impl<R>(nm, p...);
}
void dump() const {
for (const auto& it : m_fns) {
std::puts(it.first.c_str());
}
}
private:
std::map<std::string, FUNC> m_fns;
template<typename RET>
std::enable_if_t<std::is_same_v<RET, void>> invoke_impl(const std::string& nm, P... p) const {
const auto it = m_fns.find(nm);
if (it == m_fns.end()) {
return;
}
std::invoke(it->second, p...);
}
template<typename RET>
std::enable_if_t<!std::is_same_v<RET, void>, RET> invoke_impl(const std::string& nm,
P... p) const {
const auto it = m_fns.find(nm);
if (it == m_fns.end()) {
static_assert(std::is_default_constructible_v<RET>,
"RET must be default constructible");
return {};
}
return std::invoke(it->second, p...);
}
};
#define TEST_REGISTER(REGISTRY, NAME) \
static bool regfn_##REGISTRY##NAME() { \
const bool r = REGISTRY::get().add(#NAME, NAME); \
if (!r) { \
std::puts("Failed to register test " #NAME ", same name already registered!"); \
std::abort(); \
} \
return r; \
} \
static const bool reg_##REGISTRY##NAME = regfn_##REGISTRY##NAME();
#define TEST(REGISTRY, NAME, ...) \
REGISTRY::RET NAME(__VA_ARGS__); \
TEST_REGISTER(REGISTRY, NAME); \
REGISTRY::RET NAME(__VA_ARGS__)
// -- Usage 1 simple usage.
using REG1 = registry<void>;
TEST(REG1, test1) {
std::puts("REG1::test1");
}
TEST(REG1, test2) {
std::puts("REG1::test2");
}
// -- Usage 2 with convenience macro wrapper.
using REG2 = registry<void, bool>;
#define TEST2(NAME, ...) TEST(REG2, NAME, ##__VA_ARGS__)
TEST2(test1, bool val) {
printf("REG2::test1 val %d\n", val);
}
int main() {
const auto& R1 = REG1::get();
R1.dump();
R1.invoke("test1");
R1.invoke("test2");
const auto& R2 = REG2::get();
R2.dump();
R2.invoke("test1", true);
return 0;
}
</code></pre>
<h2 id="example-concepts-pre-c20"><a class="header" href="#example-concepts-pre-c20">Example: Concepts pre c++20</a></h2>
<p>Prior to c++20's concepts, <code>SFINAE</code> and <code>std::void_t</code> can be leveraged to build
something similar allowing to define an interface (aka trait) for a template
parameter.</p>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">
template<typename T, template<typename> class Checker, typename = void>
struct is_valid : std::false_type {};
template<typename T, template<typename> class Checker>
struct is_valid<T, Checker, std::void_t<Checker<T>>> : std::true_type {};
template<typename T, template<typename> class Checker>
static constexpr bool is_valid_v = is_valid<T, Checker>::value;
// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
template<typename T, typename R, template<typename> class Checker, typename = void>
struct is_valid_with_ret : std::false_type {};
template<typename T, typename R, template<typename> class Checker>
struct is_valid_with_ret<T, R, Checker, std::void_t<Checker<T>>> : std::is_same<R, Checker<T>> {};
template<typename T, typename R, template<typename> class Checker>
static constexpr bool is_valid_with_ret_v = is_valid_with_ret<T, R, Checker>::value;
// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
template<typename T>
struct is_entry {
template<typename TT>
using init = decltype(std::declval<TT>().init());
template<typename TT>
using tag = decltype(std::declval<TT>().tag());
template<typename TT>
using val = decltype(std::declval<TT>().val());
static constexpr bool value = is_valid_v<T, init> && is_valid_with_ret_v<T, int, tag> &&
is_valid_with_ret_v<T, typename T::Type, val>;
};
template<typename T>
static constexpr bool is_entry_v = is_entry<T>::value;
template<typename E>
struct Entry {
using Type = E;
void init();
int tag() const;
E val() const;
};
int main() {
static_assert(is_entry_v<Entry<bool>>, "");
}
</code></pre>
<p>The main mechanic can be explained with the following reduced example. If one
of the <code>decltype(std:declval<T>...</code> expressions is ill-formed, the template
specialization for <code>is_valid</code> will be removed from the candidate set due to
<a href="https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/sfinae">SFINAE</a>.</p>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">#include <type_traits>
// (1) Primary template.
template<typename T, typename = void>
struct is_valid : std::false_type {};
// (2) Partial template specialization.
template<typename T>
struct is_valid<T, std::void_t<decltype(std::declval<T>().some_fun1()),
decltype(std::declval<T>().some_fun2())>> : std::true_type {};
struct A {
void some_fun1() {}
void some_fun2() {}
};
struct B {};
static_assert(is_valid<A>::value, "is true");
// * Compare template arg list with primary template, we only supplied one
// arg, the second one will be defaulted as
// is_valid<A, void>
// * Compare template arg list against available specializations, this will
// try to match the pattern <A, void> against the patterns defined in the
// partial specializations.
// * Try specialization (2)
// * T -> A
// * Evaluate std::void_t -> decltype's are well-formed
// std::void_t<...> -> void
// * Specialization (2) matches <A, void>
// * Pick the most specialized version -> (2)
static_assert(!is_valid<B>::value, "is false");
// * Compare template arg list with primary template, we only supplied one
// arg, the second one will be defaulted as
// is_valid<A, void>
// * Compare template arg list against available specializations, this will
// try to match the pattern <B, void> against the patterns defined in the
// partial specializations.
// * Try specialization (2)
// * T -> B
// * Evaluate std::void_t -> decltype's are ill-formed
// * Specialization (2) is removed from candidate set, no hard error (SFINAE)
// * No specialization matches, take the primary template.
</code></pre>
<blockquote>
<p><code>std::declval<T>()</code> creates an instance of type T in an unevaluated context.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A more detailed description is available in the SO discussion <a href="https://stackoverflow.com/a/27688405">How does
<code>void_t</code> work</a>.</p>
<h2 id="template-selection-with-partially--fully-specializations"><a class="header" href="#template-selection-with-partially--fully-specializations">Template selection with partially / fully specializations.</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">enum Kind {
kPrimary,
kTT,
kIntBool,
kIntInt,
};
// (1) Primary template.
template<typename T, typename U = bool>
struct pair {
static constexpr Kind kind = kPrimary;
};
// (2) Partial template specialization.
template<typename T>
struct pair<T, T> {
static constexpr Kind kind = kTT;
};
// (3) Template specialization.
template<>
struct pair<int, bool> {
static constexpr Kind kind = kIntBool;
};
// (4) Template specialization.
template<>
struct pair<int, int> {
static constexpr Kind kind = kIntInt;
};
int main() {
static_assert(pair<int>::kind == kIntBool, "");
// * Compare template arg list with primary template, we only supplied one
// arg, the second one will be defaulted as
// pair<int, bool>
// * Compare template arg list against available specializations, this will
// try to match the pattern <int, bool> against the patterns defined in the
// partial specializations.
// * (2) <int, bool> pattern does not match
// * (3) <int, bool> pattern does match
// * (4) <int, bool> pattern does not match
// * Pick the most specialized version -> (3)
static_assert(pair<char, char>::kind == kTT, "");
// * Compare template arg list against available specializations, this will
// try to match the pattern <char, char> against the patterns defined in the
// partial specializations.
// * (2) <char, char> pattern does match
// * (3) <char, char> pattern does not match
// * (4) <char, char> pattern does not match
// * Pick the most specialized version -> (2)
static_assert(pair<int, int>::kind == kIntInt, "");
// * Compare template arg list against available specializations, this will
// try to match the pattern <int, int> against the patterns defined in the
// partial specializations.
// * (2) <int, int> pattern does match
// * (3) <int, int> pattern does match
// * (4) <int, int> pattern does not match
// * Pick the most specialized version -> (3)
static_assert(pair<char, short>::kind == kPrimary, "");
// * Compare template arg list against available specializations, this will
// try to match the pattern <char, short> against the patterns defined in the
// partial specializations.
// * (2) <char, short> pattern does not match
// * (3) <char, short> pattern does not match
// * (4) <char, short> pattern does not match
// * No specialization matches, take the primary template.
}
</code></pre>
<h1 id="example-perfect-forwarding"><a class="header" href="#example-perfect-forwarding">Example: Perfect forwarding</a></h1>
<pre><code class="language-cpp">#include <cassert>
#include <cstdio>
#include <new>
#include <type_traits>
#include <utility>
struct S {};
struct M {
M() {
std::puts("M()");
}
M(const M&) {
std::puts("M(M&)");
}
M(M&&) {
std::puts("M(M&&)");
}
M& operator=(const M&) = delete;
M& operator=(M&&) = delete;
M(S&, int) {
std::puts("M(S&)");
}
M(S&&, int) {
std::puts("M(S&&)");
}
~M() {
std::puts("~M()");
}
};
template<typename T>
struct option {
static_assert(!std::is_reference_v<T>);
constexpr option() = default;
template<typename... Params>
constexpr option(Params&&... params) : m_has_val(true) {
// BAD: does not perfectly forward!
// eg, if option(S&&) is invoked, this would invoke M(S&).
// new (&m_val) T(params...);
// GOOD: perfectly forwards params to constructor of T.
new (m_val) T(std::forward<Params>(params)...);
}
~option() {
reset();
}
constexpr T& value() {
assert(m_has_val);
return *reinterpret_cast<T*>(m_val);
}
private:
constexpr void reset() {
if (!m_has_val) {
return;
}
if constexpr (!std::is_trivially_destructible_v<T>) {
value().~T();
};
}
alignas(T) char m_val[sizeof(T)];
bool m_has_val{false};
};
int main() {
std::puts("==> case 1");
// invokes M(S&&, int)
option<M> opt1(S{}, 123);
std::puts("==> case 2");
// invokes M() + M(M&&)
option<M> x /* option(M&&) + M(M&&) */ = M{} /* M() */;
}
</code></pre>
</main>
<nav class="nav-wrapper" aria-label="Page navigation">
<!-- Mobile navigation buttons -->
<a rel="prev" href="../development/c++filt.html" class="mobile-nav-chapters previous" title="Previous chapter" aria-label="Previous chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Left">
<i class="fa fa-angle-left"></i>
</a>
<a rel="next" href="../development/glibc.html" class="mobile-nav-chapters next" title="Next chapter" aria-label="Next chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Right">
<i class="fa fa-angle-right"></i>
</a>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
</nav>
</div>
</div>
<nav class="nav-wide-wrapper" aria-label="Page navigation">
<a rel="prev" href="../development/c++filt.html" class="nav-chapters previous" title="Previous chapter" aria-label="Previous chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Left">
<i class="fa fa-angle-left"></i>
</a>
<a rel="next" href="../development/glibc.html" class="nav-chapters next" title="Next chapter" aria-label="Next chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Right">
<i class="fa fa-angle-right"></i>
</a>
</nav>
</div>
<script>
window.playground_copyable = true;
</script>
<script src="../elasticlunr.min.js"></script>
<script src="../mark.min.js"></script>
<script src="../searcher.js"></script>
<script src="../clipboard.min.js"></script>
<script src="../highlight.js"></script>
<script src="../book.js"></script>
<!-- Custom JS scripts -->
</div>
</body>
</html>
|
